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angrove
wamps

Zfy William 2/. Brown, Ph. D.

Chief, Division of Investigation, Bureau of Forestry; Plant Physiologist, Bureau of
Science; and Associate Professor of Botany, University of the Philippines,

and

Arthur F. Fischer, C. E.,M. F.

Director of Forestry; Dean and Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry,
University of the Philippines

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Bureau of Forestry

Bulletin No. 17

Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry

MANILA

BUREAU OF PRINTING

1918

161791

Forestry

Philippine Mangrove
Swamps s

By William H. Brown, Ph. D.

Chief, Division of Investigation, Bureau of Forestry; Plant Physiologist, Bureau of
Science; and Associate Professor of Botany, University of the Philippines,

and

Arthur F. Fischer, C. E., M. F.

Director of Forestry; Dean and Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry,
University of the Philippines

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Bureau of Forestry

Bulletin No. 17

Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry

MANILA

BUREAU OF PRINTING

1918

CONTENTS

Fage.

Illustrations 5

Preface 9

Introduction 11

List of Species 22

Local Names in Various Countries 23

Keys to Genera , 24

Description of Species 26

Acrostichum 26

Nipa 26

Oncosperma 30

Xylocarpus 30

Excoecaria 34

Brownlowia 34

Camptostemon 34

Heritiera 36

Sonneratia 38

Bruguiera 42

Ceriops 54

Rhizophora 56

Lumnitzera 62

Osbornia qq

Aegiceras 66

Cerbera „ 70

Avicennia 74

Acanthus 76

Scyphiphora 78

Pluchea 78

Stands in Mangrove Swamps 80

Cultivation of Rhizophora (Bakauan) 94

Firewoods 105

Tanbarks and Dye Barks 112

Economic Uses of the Nipa Palm.... 119

Forest Charges 126

!ndex 129

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I

Rhizophora candelaria invading a mud flat Frontispiece.

Plate II

Page.

Fig. 1. Looking across a mangrove swamp at head of Tubugan Bay,
Port Banga, Zamboanga. Yacal forest on hills in back-
ground. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI,

No. 1 12

2. Swamps along coast, under water at high tide. Guinayan-
gan, Tayabas. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol.
VI, No. 1 12

Plate III

Interior view of a mangrove swamp. The large tree is
Sonneratia caseolaris (pagatpat), those trees with prop
roots are Rhizophora conjugate: (bakauan), and the smaller
without prop roots are mainly Bruguiera parviflora.
Bongabon, Mindoro 13

Plate IV

Interior view of a mangrove swamp. The large tree is
Sonneratia caseolaris (pagatpat), otherwise the stand is
almost purely Bruguiera parviflora. Bongabon, Mindoro.... 15

Plate V

Roots of Avicennia officinalis exposed by wave action 17

Plate VI

Fig. 1. Myrmecodia, a plant inhabited by ants 19

2. A section through the base of a Myrmecodia 19

Plate VII

Fig. 1. Hydnophytum, a plant inhabited by ants. Diameter of base

40 centimeters 21

2. Polypodium sinuatum, a plant inhabited by ants 21

Plate VIII

Acrostichum aureum 27

Plate IX

Nipa palm with flowers and fruit. From Philippine Agr.

Rev., Vol. IX, No. 3 (1916) 28

Plate X

Fig. 1. Fruit of nipa. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol.

VI, No. 2 29

2. Section of fruit of nipa. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec.

A, Vol. VI, No. 2 29

6 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Plate XI

Page.

Fig. 1. Xylocarpus granatum with immature fruit 31

2. A germinating seed of Xylocarpus granatum 31

Plate XII

Xylocarpus moluccensis 33

Plate XIII

Fig. 1. Excoecaria agallocha with fruits 35

2. Camptostemon philippinense with fruits 35

Plate XIV
Heritiera littoralis, fruits and flowers 37

Plate XV
Sonneratia alba, fruit and flower 39

Plate XVI

Fig. 1. Sonneratia caseolaris on an open coast. An old beach has
been eroded, leaving a lagoon containing a mangrove
swamp on the open coast. Bongabon, Mindoro. Reprint

Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 41

2. Air roots of Sonneratia caseolaris. Trees growing in salt

water. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No 1.. 41

Plate XVII
Sonneratia caseolaris, flower and fruits 43

Plate XVIII
Bruguiera conjugata with flowers 45

Plate XIX

Bruguiera sexangula with flowers 47

Plate XX

Bruguiera sexangula with immature fruit 49

Plate XXI

Bruguiera cylindrica, fruits and flowers 50

Plate XXII
Bruguiera cylindrica with flowers 51

Plate XXIII
Bruguiera parviflora with flowers 53

Plate XXIV
Fruit of Bruguiera parviflora 55

Plate XXV
Ceriops roxburghiana with flowers 57

Plate XXVI
Ceriops roxburghiana with fruits 58

ILLUSTRATIONS. 7

Plate XXVII

Page.

Rhizophora candelario, fruit and old flowers from which

petals have fallen 59

Plate XXVIII
Rhizophora mucronata, inflorescences and flower 61

Plate XXIX
Rhizophora mucronata with fruit 63

Plate XXX

Lumnitzera littorca, flowers and fruit 65

Plate XXXI

Osbornia octodonta with fruits 67

Plate XXXII

Aegiceras corniculatum with flowers 68

Plate XXXIII

Flowers of Aegiceras corniculatum 69

Plate XXXIV

Aegiceras corniculatum with fruits 71

Plate XXXV

Aegiceras floridum with immature fruits 72

Plate XXXVI

Cerbera manghas, flowers and fruit 73

Plate XXXVII

Avicennia officinalis with fruits and flowers 75

Plate XXXVIII

Avicennia officinalis with air roots 77

Plate XXXIX

Acanthus ilicifolius, flowers and fruit 79

Plate XL

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, fruits and flowers 81

Plate XLI

Fig. 1. Pototan tree, along seacoast at low tide. From Philippine

Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 85

2. Pototan; lower trunk and roots. From Philippine Journ.

Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 85

8 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Plate XLII

Page.

Fig. 1. Mangrove swamp at sitio Limbagujan. Stumps of tangal
(Ceriops) in foreground. Trees of Rhizophora (bakauan)
and Bruguiera. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol.

VI, No. 1 89

2. Mangrove swamp. View of pieces of bakauan rajas (fire-
wood). Masbate. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A,
Vol. VI, No. 1 89

Plate XLIII

Fig. 1. Piled firewood cut mainly from sawed species of tangal and
bakauan. Southwest coast of Camarines. From Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 107

2. Lorcha load of rajas (firewood), three hours consumed in
loading, two for discharging. From Philippine Journ. Sci.,
Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 107

Plate XLIV

Fig. 1. Marketing firewood in Manila. From Philippine Journ. Sci.,

Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 109

2. Firewood piled for sale in the Manila market. From Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 109

Plate XLV

Fig. 1. View from top of San Esteban distillery. Nipa swamps as
far as the eye can reach. Nipa houses in the foreground.
(Photograph by Martin.) From Philippine Journ. Sci.,

Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 2 121

2. Uncultivated nipa swamp. Legaspi, Albay Province. (Photo-
graph by Martin.) From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A,
Vol. VI, No. 2 121

Plate XLVI

Cultivated nipa swamp. Bulacan. (Photograph by Martin.)

From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 2 123

Plate XL VII

Fig. 1. Collecting the nipa sap. Showing a native collector and two
bamboo joints (tuquils) in position to receive the sap.
(Photograph by Martin.) From Philippine Journ. Sci.'

Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 2 125

2. Nipa palms in fruit. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A,

Vol. VI, No. 2 125

PREFACE

This bulletin is the third in a series dealing with minor forest
products. Although the mangrove swamps produce valuable
woods, they have been included in this series on account of the
fact that they are utilized more for their minor forest products
than for timber. The principal minor forest products derived
from them are firewoods, tanbarks, dye barks, and the various
products of the nipa palm, including thatching material and
alcohol. The nipa palm is also a promising commercial source
of sugar. Besides the products just mentioned, there are a
number of other minor ones which will be discussed in the text.

The mangrove swamps constitute a very valuable asset to the
Philippine Islands and, if properly managed, will prove to be a
permanent source of considerable income both to the people and
the Government. This bulletin is presented in the hope that
it will aid in giving a better understanding of the swamps, their
commercial possibilities, and the methods of their utilization.

In preparing this bulletin we have made use of records in
the Bureau of Forestry, and have taken considerable information
from a bulletin on Mangrove and Nipah Swamps of British
North Borneo, by F. W. Foxworthy and D. M. Matthews. The
descriptions of the various woods are taken from Bulletin 14,
Commercial Woods of the Philippines, by E. E. Schneider. The
writers are greatly indebted to Mr. E. D. Merrill, of the Bureau
of Science, for very valuable help in preparing this bulletin
and to Dr. F. W. Foxworthy for criticising the manuscript.
The pictures of the flowering and fruiting specimens were taken
for the writers through the courtesy of the Bureau of Science
by the official government photographer, Mr. E. Cortes. The
two drawings were made by Mr. J. K. Santos, assistant in botany,
University of the Philippines. Mr. R. C. McGregor, special
editor of the Philippine Journal of Science, has been of great
assistance in helping in the preparation of this manuscript for
the printer. For the above assistance we desire here to express
our grateful appreciation.

William H. Brown.
Arthur F. Fischer.

PHILIPPINE MANGROVE SWAMPS

By William H. Brown and Arthur F. Fischer
INTRODUCTION

The mangrove swamps of the Philippine Islands apparently
occupy between 400,000 and 500,000 hectares. No accurate
survey of them has been made and the estimate of the area is
based on reports from forest officers, Coast and Geodetic Survey
maps, and forest maps. The area may exceed what is here
given, but it is believed that it will not be less. The figure
given includes also most of the areas of nipa swamps, as the
classification has not, in most cases, been exact enough to show,
in detail, how much of the swamp was in mangrove and how
much in nipa.

The term mangrove swamp is applied to the type of forest
occurring on tidal flats along sea coasts. They are found fring-
ing the shores of the islands of the Philippine Archipelago
and extending inland along the streams where the water is
brackish (Plate II). The conditions most favorable for their
development are found in quiet bays into which flow large rivers
whose lower reaches have little fall.

The descending waters of the river are checked when they
meet tidewater and deposit their sediment in the form of broad
mud flats or deltas near the mouths of the rivers.

These flats are usually cut by a network of channels through
which the advancing and receding waters of the sea move. At
extreme low tide the flats are exposed and often even the larger
channels are dry.

On these mud flats the trees and other plants which form the
mangrove and nipa-swamp vegetation find conditions favorable
to their development and, as the seeds of these species are
distributed by water and can be transported for long distances
without injury, the formation of flats and their seeding are
practically simultaneous. The growth of all species is very
rapid and the flats soon become dense forest, and remain so
as long as the conditions which produced them are not disturbed
(Plates III, IV). When the shore formation is favorable, new
flats are formed beyond the old and the forest advances year

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Fig. 1. Looking across a mangrove swamp at head of Tubugan Bay, Port Banga, Zamboanga.

-* • ' • •.•••"• v ' . .-'•'■•''■' : . •;.

. , •" ..'.v v " •• ■ . •
,.l • " 1

Fig. 2. Swamps along coast, under water at high tide.
PLATE II.

INTRODUCTION.

14 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

by year ; its area diminishing or increasing as the lands drained
or filled in by the action of the river are of greater or less
extent than those newly formed. The draining and filling in
of the lands on the upper limits of the swamp is very gradual,
so that although the change from mangrove to dry forest is
characteristic of these areas the process is extremely slow and
less noticeable than the advance of the forest over newly formed
flats on the sea edge of the swamp.

The mangrove forests may contain trees 1.35 meters in dia-
meter; and when fully stocked, with mature timber, compare
favorably with the commercial forests of the land. Areas with
650 cubic meters per hectare are found in the older swamps.
These forests are not swamps and marshes, as we think of them
in temperate regions, where trees grow in wet places that are
periodically covered with standing water; but are literally
forests of the sea with their roots in a stratum in which salt
water is always present. For the greater part of the time the
roots and even the lower part of the trunks of the trees are
submerged in from 0.5 to 1 meter of salt water, while at high
tide the lower limbs and foliage of the trees on the edges of
the swamp are often submerged for a short time without injury
(Plate II, fig. 1) ; conditions of life that would absolutely destroy
ordinary forest trees.

Their character as forests of the sea is emphasized by the
fact that when they form narrow strips, coral and sand beaches
are often found back of the swamps on exposed coasts. The
vegetation on these mud flats can be divided into two classes;
mangrove swamps, in which large trees are present, and nipa
swamps, which are characterized by a growth of the stemless
palm, Nipa fruticans.

Mangrove-swamp forests, or "mangles," as they are called
locally, are usually made up of thick stands of medium-sized
and even-aged trees. Normally they are very free from under-
growth other than seedlings, and are characterized by the pres-
ence of roots showing on or above the surface of the ground
(Plates I, III, IV, V, XVI, XXXVIII, and XLI). Depending
upon the species in question, these may take the form of erect
roots, knees, high prop roots, or mere swollen roots with side
branches extending along the surface of the ground. The air
roots have a spongy texture and absorb air which serves for
the aeration of the root system. These peculiar roots are one
of the most distinguishing characteristics of mangrove swamps.
When the mud flats are not covered with water, the roots give
a very peculiar appearance to the vegetation.

INTRODUCTION.

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16 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

The main tree species in a virgin swamp are few in number,
and the principal ones are of the botanical family Rhizopho-
raceae. In this family there are found: Rhizophora candelaria
and R. mucronata; Ceriops tagal and C. roxburghiana; and
Bruguiera conjugata, B. parviflora, B. cylindrica, and B. sexan-
gula. While these eight species are the ones most numerous
in nearly all virgin swamps, scattered trees of pagatpat (Son-
neratia caseolaris) often occur mixed with them or growing
along exposed coral beaches. Api-api (Avicennia spp.) is some-
times found scattered in the more open places. Occasionally,
this last-mentioned tree grows in pure stands along the inland
edge of a mangrove swamp. Trees of the genus Rhizophora
are frequently the first to seed upon and occupy the newly
formed mud flats (Plate I). They are prop-rooted species, and
normally grow on those portions of the swamp most deeply
flooded by the tides. Such places are usually confined to the
area along or close to water channels, although on low swamps
Rhizophora forest extends farther inland. Rhizophora mucro-
nata predominates in the fringe of trees bordering on water-
ways, while Rhizophora candelaria is by far commoner in the
main forest within this outer fringe.

Trees of the genus Bruguiera occupy the portion of the swamp
in which the ground is barely, if at all, flooded at high tide.
Such places are usually toward the inland portions of the
swamp and often, probably in the majority of cases, comprise
a large percentage of its total area. As the ground level is
raised by the natural filling in of the delta, it often happens
that areas occupied by these Bruguiera forests become so high
that they are seldom, if ever, flooded.

In open bays where the soil is mixed with considerable sand
or coral limestone, there is a distinct frontal zone of Sonneratia
caseolaris (Plate XVI), with some Avicennia officinalis. Wave-
cut coral terraces often contain nearly pure stands of Sonneratia
caseolaris.

Several other trees occur in these salt swamps, usually along
their inner edges or in places where the stands are light. These
include Xylocarpus moluccensis, X. granatum, Lumnitzera lit-
torea, and Aegiceras corniculatum. Heritiera littoralis (dungon-
late) is common on the higher ground which is still within
the zone affected by salt water.

In swamp areas in which cutting has long been carried on
the original and more valuable species are often largely replaced
by Avicennia spp. (api-api). These species were considered to
be of little value until the present fuel shortage.

INTRODUCTION.

161791-

18 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Skirting the inland portions of the water channels, through
which the tide ebbs and flows, is often found a strip of nipa
palm (Nipa fruticans) , usually narrow, although sometimes
it occupies areas of considerable extent (Plates IX, XLV). In
Pangil Bay, Mindanao, there is a single area of nipa covering
9,000 hectares. Nipa grows farther up the streams flowing
through the mangrove forests than do the trees forming them,
being found along streams where the effect of tide is barely
noticeable. In some places the mangrove trees have been killed
or cut out and nipa planted over wide areas of swamp. Such is
the case north of Manila Bay, where much of the original tree
growth has been entirely replaced by nipa.

Nipa has a large, branching, horizontal rhizome, or under-
ground stem, which grows just below, or on the surface of, the
soil and sends up short branches with a cluster of pinnate
leaves, which rise 7 meters or more above the ground. Nipa
frequently forms a dense mass of vegetation which is difficult
to penetrate.

Undergrowth in a heavy virgin swamp is usually scanty, but
in places where stands are light, in cut-over areas, and along
the outer edges of the swamp, a fairly heavy undergrowth of
vines, shrubs, ferns, and herbs is developed. Very noticeable
in this are a swamp fern, Acrostichum aureum y end two spiny-
leaved undershrubs, Acanthus ilicifolius and A. ebracteatus.

Among the commonest woody vines are Derris trifoliata
Lour. (D. uliginosa Benth.) , Tristellateia australasiae L. C. Rich.,
Dalbergia candenatensis Prain, Caesalpinia nuga Ait., Caesal-
pinia crista Linn., and Finlaysonia obovata Wall. Herbaceous
vines are represented by the epiphytes Hoya and Dischidia.

Epiphytes are fairly numerous throughout the swamps. Per-
haps the most conspicuous elements are the orchids, especially
species of Cymbidium and Dendrobium. Epiphytic ferns are
represented by Drynaria quercifolia J. Sm., Polypodium sinner
turn Wall., and sometimes Asplenium nidus L. The most pecu-
liar epiphytes are those containing cavities which are inhabited
by ants. These are very abundant and are represented by
Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum, and Polypodium sinuatum Wall.
The bases of the stems of Hydnophytum and Myrmecodia are
greatly enlarged and contain labyrinth cavities in which ants
are found in large numbers (Plates VI, VII). The stems of
Polypodium sinuatum are swollen and hollow, the cavities being
inhabited by ants (Plate VII). Dischidia saccata Warb. is

INTRODUCTION.

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Fig. 1. Myrmecodia, a plant inhabited by ants.

Fig. 2. A section through the base of a Myrmecodh
PLATE VI.

20 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

found in some swamps. This plant has hollow leaves in which
ants are found.

Reproduction is prolific in almost all places where seed trees
are found, except along the higher inland portions of the swamp.

Back of the swamps are found numerous characteristic
strand plants, and representatives of nearly all such plants in
the region may be found in such situations. Among the com-
mon trees and shrubs back of the swamps are Glochidion littorale
Blume, Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn., Thespesia populnea Corr., and
Barringtonia racemosa Roxb. The sedge Fimbristylis ferru-
ginea Vahl practically always occurs in such places, while along
muddy banks Cyperus malaccensis Lam. is very common.

The chief commercial value of mangrove-swamp trees is for
the production of firewood, charcoal, tannin, and dye barks.
Some of the woods are also used for ship timbers, posts, ties,
telegraph poles, piling, construction, finish, and furniture.

The nipa palm is very valuable as a source of thatching and
alcohol and offers considerable possibilities for the production
of sugar. For a discussion of the products of mangrove trees
and the nipa palm, see the sections on these various subjects.

Mangrove trees serve a useful purpose in preserving water
courses through the deltas at mouths of rivers. That they
may be used to advantage to retain soil in engineering projects
is shown by the following quotation : *

The latest use of the mangrove in a practical way and one of which
the writer has personal knowledge is the use of these trees as ballast
retainers. This has been effectively demonstrated by the Florida East
Coast Railway which has used the peculiar habit of the mangrove to
advantage in their great feat of engineering, viz., the Oversea extension.
At certain places these keys are connected by embankments supporting
the road bed or where the bed is built high over a low flat key, the
mangroves have been planted to prevent the erosive action of the sea
on the ballast. This has been of greatest importance to the railroad and
has protected the dykes just as the mangroves naturally sown have
formed and protected young islands. Still more recently the writer has
been of some small service to a large asphalt company concerning their
engineering projects in Venezuela in which it is proposed to plant Rhizo-
phora mangle along the dykes and jetties, etc., as a ballast retainer. This,
it is hoped, will prove as efficient as the plantings of the Florida East
Coast Railway have been in aiding the engineer in the tropics.

Mangrove swamps occur in similar situations in the tropics

* Bowman, H. H. M., Ecology and Physiology of the Red Mangrove.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. LVI (1917) pp.
589-672.

INTRODUCTION.

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22 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

of both hemispheres. The Rhizophoraceae are the most prom-
inent trees in all cases, but the species are different in America
and in the Indo-Malayan regions. The composition is, however,
very similar in East Africa and the Indo-Malayan regions. The
tree species are few in number. In the Philippines twenty-five
dicotyledonous trees have been reported from the mangrove
swamps. The wide distribution of the species and the number
of individuals of single species in the swamps make these forests
unique among tropical forests.

LIST OF SPECIES IN PHILIPPINE MANGROVE SWAMPS WITH NATIVE
AND FAMILY NAMES

Acrostichum aureum Linn. Lagolo. Polypodiaceae.

Nipa fruticans Wurmb. Nipa. Palmae.

Oncosperma filamentosa Blume. Anibong. Palmae.

Xylocarpus granatum (obovatus) Koen. Tabigi. Meliaceae.

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem. Piagau. Meliaceae.

Excoecaria agallocha Linn. Buta-buta. Euphorbiaceae.

Brownloivia lanceolata Benth. Maragomon. Tiliaceae.

Camptostemon (Cumingia) philippinense (Vidal) Becc. Gapas-gapas.
Bombacaceae.

Heritiera littoralis Dryand. Dungon-late. Sterculiaceae.

Sonneratia alba (acida) Sm. Pedada. Sonneratiaceae.

Sonneratia caseolaris (pagatpat) (Linn.) Engl. Pagatpat. Sonneratiaceae.

Bruguiera conjuguta {gymnorrhiza) (Linn.) Merr. Busain. Rhizopho-
raceae.

Bruguiera cylindrica (caryophylloides) (Linn.) Blume. Pototan-lalaki.
Rhizophoraceae.

Bruguiera parviflora W. & A. Langarai. Rhizophoraceae.

Bruguiera sexangula (eriopetala) (Lour.) Poir. Pototan. Rhizophoraceae.

Ceriops roxburghiana Am. Tangal. Rhizophoraceae.

Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B. Rob. Taiigal. Rhizophoraceae.

Rhizophora candelaria (conjugata) DC. Bakauan-lalaki. Rhizophoraceae.

Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Bakauan-babae. Rhizophoraceae.

Lumnitzera littorea Voigt. Tabau. Combretaceae.

Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Kulasi. Combretaceae.

Osbornia octodonta F. Muell. Tawalis. Myrtaceae.

Aegiceras corniculatum (Linn.) Blanco. Saging-saging. Myrsinaceae.

Aegiceras floridum R. and S. Tinduktindukan. Myrsinaceae.

Cerbera manghas (odollam) Linn. Baraybay. Apocynaceae.

Avicennia alba Blume. Api-api. Verbenaceae.

Avicennia officinalis Linn. Api-api. Verbenaceae.

Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl. Tigbao. Acanthaceae.

Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. Diliuariu. Acanthaceae.

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. Nilad. Rubiaceae.

Pluchea indica Linn. Kalapini. Compositae.

LOCAL NAMES.

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24 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Key to the genera of mangrove-swamp plants.

[Based on superficial characters.]

1. Palms.

2. Stemless, with underground rhizomes; without spines.. Nipa, page 26

2. Trunks erect with numerous, long, slender spines.. Oncosperma, page 30

1. A large coarse fern with pinnate leaves rising in a cluster from the

base Acrostichum, page 26

1. Not palms or ferns.

2. Leaves pinnate with one to three pairs of leaflets. Large trees with
round fruit 8 to 25 centimeters in diameter and containing a few,

very large, angular seeds Xylocarpus, page 30

2. Leaves not pinnate ; fruits not as above.
3. Leaves opposite.

4. Herbs or shrubs with spiny-margined leaves.... Acanthus, page 76
4. Leaves not spiny.

5. Leaves usually pointed at the tip.

6. Tip of leaf with prominent projection of the midrib.

Rhizophora, page 56
6. Tip of leaf without projection of the midrib.

7. Petioles usually not over 2 or 3 millimeters in length.

Sonneratia, page 38
7. Petioles usually more than 6 millimeters in length.

8. Lower surface of leaves green; with long, slender seedling

projecting from the fruit Bruguiera, page 42

8. Lower surface of leaves gray or white; fruit a capsule
up to 2.5 centimeters in length and containing a single

seed Avicennia, page 74

5. Leaves rounded at apex and not notched ; mature leaves usually
more than 3 centimeters in breadth.
6. Petioles usually more than 1.5 centimeters long; flowers

about 1 centimeter in length Scyphiphora, page 78

6. Petioles usually much less than 1.5 centimeters in length;

flowers about 5 centimeters long Sonneratia, page 38

5. Some or all of the leaves slightly or conspicuously notched at
apex.
6. Petioles very short, much less than 5 millimeters in length.

Osbornia, page 66
6. Petioles more than 1 centimeter in length.... Ceriops, page 54
3. Leaves alternate.

4. Small shrubs; leaves with toothed margin Pluchea, page 78

4. Margin of leaves smooth or nearly so.

5. Tips of leaves usually pointed, or lower surfaces of leaves with
a silvery appearance.
6. Petioles more than 2 centimeters in length ; plants with
abundant milky juice.
7. Leaves more than 15 centimeters long; flowers large, white,

terminal Cerbera, page 70

7. Leaves less than 12 centimeters and usually less than 10
centimeters long; flowers very small, from branches below

the leaves Excoecaria, page S4

6. Petioles less than 2 centimeters in length; plants without
milky juice.

7. Leaves rounded at the base Heritiera, page 36

7. Leaves pointed at the base Brownlowia, page 34

KEYS TO GENERA. 25

5. Apex of leaves rounded and usually notched.

6. Petioles usually about 2 or more centimeters in length; leaves,
stems, and fruits densely covered with small round scales.

Camptostemon, page 34
6. Petioles 1 centimeter or less in length.

7. Fruits shaped like a banana except that the tips are sharply

pointed Aegiceras, page 66

7. Fruits not shaped like a banana Lumnitzera, page 62

Key to the genera of mangrove-swamp plants.

[Based on floral characters.]

1. Plant without flowers or seeds, reproduced by means of spores.

Family 1, Polypodiaceae; Acrostichum.
1. Plants with flowers that produce seeds.

2. Cotyledon one; leaves parallel-veined Family 2, Palmae.

3. With erect spiny trunk Oncosperma.

3. Without trunk and without spines Nipa.

2. Cotyledons two ; leaves netted-veined.
3. Corolla none.

4. Ovary inferior Family 10, Combretaceae ; Lumnitzera.

4. Ovary superior.

5. Flowers dioecious; plants with milky juice.

Family 4, Euphorbiaceae; Excoecaria.
5. Flowers monoecious; plants without milky juice.

Family 7, Sterculiaceae; Heritiera.
3. Calyx and corolla both present; the corolla of distinct and separate
petals.
4. Ovary superior.

5. Stamens numerous, more than twice as many as the petals.
6. Filaments united, stamens on the outside of a column.

Family 6, Bombacaceae; Camptostemon.

6. Filaments free Family 5, Tiliaceae; Brownlowia.

5. Stamens few, never more than twice as many as the petals;
inside of small cup-shaped tube.

Family 3, Meliaceae; Xylocarpus.
4. Ovary inferior.

5. Stamens numerous, many times as many as the petals.

6. Flowers small; calyx lobes imbricate in bud; leaves usually

with glandular dots Family 11, Myrtaceae; Osbornia.

6. Flowers large; calyx lobes valvate in bud; leaves not gland-
ular dotted Family 8, Sonneratiaceae; Sonneratia.

5. Stamens usually twice as many as the petals.

Family 9, Rhizophoraceae.

6. Petals four Rhizophora.

6. Petals five or six Ceriops.

6. Petals eight to fourteen Bruguiera.

3. Calyx and corolla both present; the petals more or less united.
4. Ovary superior.

5. Stamens opposite the lobes of the corolla, as many as the lobes.

Family 12, Myrsinaceae; Aegiceras.
5. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla in regular flowers
and alternate with the lobes, or sometimes fewer in irre-
gular flowers.

26 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

6. Carpels distinct, at least below, sometimes united at apex by
the styles; plants with milky juice.

Family 13, Apocynaceae; Cerbera.
6. Carpels entirely united; plants with watery juice.
7. Fruits drupaceous; flowers small.

Family 14, Verbenaceae; Avicennia.
7. Fruits capsular, dehiscent; flowers large.

Family 15, Acanthaceae; Acanthus.
4. Ovary inferior.

5. Flowers not in dense heads; leaves opposite.

Family 16, Rubiaceae; Scyphiphora.
5. Flowers in dense heads; leaves alternate.

Family 17, Compositae; Pluchea.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

Family 1, POLYPODIACEAE

Genus ACROSTICHUM
ACROSTICHUM AUREUM Linn. (Plate VIII). L.AGOLO.

Local names: Piai (Agusan) ; pakupakuan (Manila); lapole (Tayabas).

Acrostichum aureum occurs in great abundance on open mud
flats in the swamp and along tidal streams. The leaves are
pinnate, leathery, and from 50 to 200 centimeters in length. The
leaflets are from 20 to 50 centimeters long and from 4 to 6
centimeters wide. Acrostichum aureum is distributed in the
tropics of both hemispheres.

Family 2, PALMAE

Key to the genera.

Stemless, with underground rhizomes; without spines Nipa.

Trunks erect with numerous, long, slender spines Oncosperma.

Genus NIPA

NIPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (Plates IX, X). NlPA.

Local names: Sasd, lasa, pduid (Tagalog) ; saga (Sambali), tdta, anipa
(Cagayan) ; nipa (Bikol).

This palm is at once distinguished from all others in the Philip-
pines by its habit and habitat. It occurs along tidal streams
throughout the Philippines and, from an economic standpoint,
is one of the most important palms in the Archipelago. It is
of special interest from the fact that it thrives only in brackish
swamps. Nipa has a stout, creeping, subterranean stem or
rhizome. The leaves are pinnate, 7 meters or more in length,
and occur in erect clusters. Nipa frequently forms a dense
mass of vegetation which is very difficult to penetrate. The

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE VIII. ACROSTICHUM AUREUM.

MANGROVE SWAMFS.

(fi

z
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o

I-

u.
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DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

Fig. 1. Fruit of nipa.

Fig. 2. Section of fruit of nipa.
PLATE X.

30 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

fruits are flat and about 12 centimeters long by 10 centi-
meters broad. The inflorescence is very characteristic, notably
the large, globose, fruiting head, which is up to 30 centimeters
in diameter and borne on a special erect stalk. This plant ap-
parently has no very definite blooming season, but as a general
rule, at least in Bulacan and Pampanga Provinces, flowers during
the months of February and March. It takes about four months
for the fruit to ripen.

The methods of cultivation of nipa and its economic value as
a source of thatching material, alcohol, and sugar will be dis-
cussed later.

Genus ONCOSPERMA
ONCOSPERMA FILAMENTOSA Blume. Anibong.

Local name: Anibong (Tagalog and Bisaya).

Anibong can be at once recognized by the numerous, long,
slender, horizontally spreading, stiff, sharp spines borne on the
trunk throughout its length.

Like the other species of the genus, this is a rather tall, slender
palm. It often grows subgregariously in favorable habitats,
in ravines, or in lowlands back of the mangrove and often within
the influence of brackish or salt water. The outer part of the
trunk is very hard and durable; and split into narrow pieces is
extensively used by the Filipinos, in the regions where it grows,
for house floors. It is also used for spear shafts. The bud is
edible, either raw or cooked; while in the Malay Archipelago,
perhaps also in the Philippines, the fruits are sometimes used as
a substitute for areca fruits in preparing buyo for chewing.

Family 3, MELIACEAE

Genus XYLOCARPUS

Key to the species.

Bark light colored, smooth; fruit 17 to 25 centimeters in diameter.

Xylocarpus granatum.
Bark dark brown, very rough; fruit about the size of a small orange.

Xylocarpus moluccensis.

XYLOCARPUS GRANATUM Koen. (Plate XI). TABIGI.

Local names: Tabigi (Lanao, Cebu, Tayabas, Guimaras Island, Zam-
boanga, Negros, Dinagat Island, Camarines, Masbate, Agusan, Sorsogon,
Leyte, Marinduque, Panay, Basilan, Palawan, Samar, Cotabato, Culion) ;
pulit (Basilan Island) ; kulimbdning (Culion Island) ; tambo-tambo (Zam-
boanga) ; lubandyong (Cagayan) ; nigi (Mindoro, Camarines, Palawan,
Zambales, Tayabas); piagdu (Masbate, Zamboanga).

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

32 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

This is a medium-sized to large tree, reaching a diameter of
100 centimeters, with thin, smooth, and light-colored bark. The
bark contains a large amount of tannin. The inner bark is dark
red and furnishes a dark red dye. The trunk is usually crooked
and very often rotten. The roots frequently extend for a con-
siderable distance through the mud. They are crooked, and the
projecting parts are very narrow on top.

The wood is moderately hard and moderately heavy. The
sapwood is small in amount, whitish; the heartwood red. The
grain is straight or slightly crossed ; the texture fine and glossy.
The wood seasons very well, shrinking little and checking or
warping hardly at all; works easily. It is rarely, if ever, at-
tacked by beetles. It is used for poles ; ties ; posts ; beams, joists,
rafters ; doors ; flooring ; all interior finish ; high-grade furniture
and cabinetwork; among the best and most beautiful cabinet
woods in the Islands.

The leaves are alternate and compound with one to three
pairs of leaflets. The flowering branches are usually from 3.5
to 7 centimeters in length. The flowers are about 6 millimeters
long. The stalks are from 7 to 13 millimeters in length. The
calyx has four rounded lobes. The four petals are much longer
than the calyx, rounded, the edges overlapping. The fruit is
from 17 to 25 centimeters in diameter and round, with a thick,
corky, leathery covering, which usually splits into four pieces as
the fruit dries. The fruit contains a number of corky, more
or less pyramidal seeds, which float, with the small end up, until
after germination.

XYLOCARPUS MOLUCCENSIS (Lam.) M. Roem. (Plate XII). Piagau.

Local names: Piagau (Mindoro, Zamboanga, Negros, Cotabato, Palawan,
Guimaras Island) ; lagut-ut (Guimaras Island) ; tabigi or tibigi (Mindoro
and Cotabato) ; puyugau (Ticao Island) ; sangkuyong (Moro and Jolo) ;
piadak (Palawan).

This species differs from the last in being straighter and
taller ; with dark, flaky bark ; smaller fruits, about the size of an
orange; and erect air roots. The wood is generally a little
harder and darker in color than that of Xylocarpus granatum.
The heartwood at the base of the trunk is often rotten. This
tree reaches a diameter of 65 centimeters. The wood has the
same uses as that of Xylocarpus granatum.

The leaves are compound, with two or three pairs of leaflets.
The flowering branches are slender and from 7 to 25 centimeters
in length. The flowers are similar to those of Xylocarpus gra-
natum, but have rather broader petals and a shorter style. The
fruit is rounded and about the size of a small orange.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

161791 3

34 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Family 4, EUPHORBIACEAE

Genus EXCOECARIA

EXCOECARIA AGALLOCHA Linn. (Plate XIII). Buta-BUTA.

Local names: Batano (Pangasinan and Cagayan) ; buta (Basilan, Ba-
taan, Mindoro, and Palawan) ; buta-buta (Bataan and Palawan) ; lipata
(Palawan, Agusan, and Camarines) ; lipatang-buhay (Palawan) ; alipata
(Negros) ; kidasi (Tayabas and Lanao).

Excoecaria agallocha is a small tree, usually not more than
8 meters in height, growing on firm mud or sand at the edge
of the swamp or on relatively firm spots in swamps. The bark
is light gray and broadly checked with darker streaks. It con-
tains copious milky sap which is very poisonous, being said
even to cause blindness when it touches the eyes.

The leaves are alternate, shiny, pointed at the tip and some-
what rounded at the base, and about 6 to 12 centimeters long.
The flowers are very small and are densely crowded on slender
flowering branches. The male flowers are found on spikes which
grow singly in the axils of the leaves and are from 5 to 10
centimeters long. The female flowers occur on branches which
are 2 to 3 centimeters long. There are three sepals, no petals,
and three stamens. The fruits are composed of three sections,
are somewhat rounded, smooth, and about 5 millimeters in dia-
meter. The wood is pale brownish white, soft, and probably
not used for any purpose but fuel.

Family 5, TILIACEAE

Genus BROWNLOWIA
BROWNLOWIA LANCEOLATA Benth. MARAGOMON.

Local name: Maragomon (Bisaya).

This species is a shrub or a small tree. The leaves are pointed
at both ends ; 9 to 15 centimeters long, 3 to 4.5 centimeters wide ;
the upper surface when mature is smooth and shiny, the lower
covered by a dense layer of minute, whitish yellow scales. The
inflorescences have few flowers. The flowers are about 6 milli-
meters long; the stalks about the same length. The calyx is
5 millimeters long, bell-shaped, and divided into three to five
lobes. There are five petals, which are longer than the calyx.

Family 6, BOMBACACEAE

Genus CAM PTOSTEMON

CAMPTOSTEMON PH ILIPPIN ENSE (Vidal) Becc. (Plate XIII). Gapas-

GAPAS.
Local names: Bungalon (Tayabas); gapas-gdpas (Negros, Capiz, Zam-
boanga) ; dandulit (Zamboanga) ; baluno (Zamboanga) ; Ubato-putV , nigi-
putV (Tayabas).

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

-I

36 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

A small tree, 6 to 10 meters high, the vegetative parts, buds,
and fruits, covered with numerous small round scales. Leaves
alternate, rather thick, crowded at the ends of the branches,
margin smooth, apex rounded, base narrowed, 5 to 10 centi-
meters long, 3 to 6 centimeters wide, petioles 2 to 5 centimeters
long. Flowers small, crowded at the tips of short axillary stalks,
nearly white, and with five petals. The anthers are few in
number and crowded at the apex of a short tube. The fruit is
a small, pear-shaped capsule, about 1.5 centimeters long, and
contains a few 7 small seeds densely covered with a cottonlike
substance.

The wood is moderately hard; of smooth, fine texture; pure
creamy-white, but bluing easily in seasoning. It is a pretty
wood, but little known and rarely cut except with mixed firewood.

Family 7, STERCULIACEAE

Genus HERITIERA

HERITIERA LITTORALIS Dryand. (Plate XIV). DuNGON-LATE.

Local names: Dungon-ldte and dungon (Tayabas, Baler, Negros, Butuan,
Camarines, Masbate, Lanao, Palawan, Zamboanga, Mindoro, Bataan, Cota-
bato, Zambales, Manila, Misamis, Leyte, Basilan, Surigao, Palaui Island,
Sorsogon, Ticao, Guimaras, Agusan) ; paunapin (Cagayan) ; magdyao (Ca-
gayan) ; palugdpig, paloiigdpoi, paronapin, parondpoi (Cagayan, Panga-
sinan, Zambales) ; bant (Moro) ; malarungon (Tayabas) ; palongapuy
(Iloko) ; dungon-lalao (Tayabas) ; bdrit (Zamboanga) ; dum,6n (Cagayan) ;
bayag-kabayo (Manila).

This is a tree which grows on the inner part of the swamp
and sometimes on dry land just back of the swamp. The bark
is light-colored and coarsely furrowed. There is a thin outer
layer which peels off readily and leaves a dark brown color.
Most of the trees are small and useless, though occasionally
large-sized trees are found. It may reach a diameter of about
90 centimeters and have a clear length of 13 meters.

The wood is very hard, heavy, very tough and flexible, but
not resilient. The sapwood is up to 6 or 8 centimeters in
thickness; in mature trees sharply marked off from heartwood.
The heartwood is reddish brown to dark chocolate, often con-
taining masses of stony deposits in old knots and heart cracks.
The grain is crossed and sometimes curly; texture fine, dense,
smooth, but not glossy. Logs and large timbers are liable to
split deeply in seasoning; boards less liable to split, but must
be piled carefully and heavily loaded to prevent warping. It
is very difficult to work, both on account of its hardness and
toughness, and because it dulls tools badly, even when no stony
deposits are met. The heartwood is rarely attacked even by ter-
mites and only eaten slowly by teredos. The sapwood is rapidly

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE

XIV. HERITIERA LITTORALIS, FRUITS AND FLOWERS.

38 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

attacked by both insects and fungi. The wood is used for piling ;
posts; foundation sills; ties, paving blocks, bridges, wharfs,
and ship buildings; beams, joists, rafters; hubs, spokes, felloes,
and axles; capstan bars and other levers; ax, pick, and other
tool handles; mallets and other wooden tools; recommended for
steamed bent work where great strength and durability are
required.

The leaves are 10 to 20 centimeters long, alternate, simple,
dark shiny green on the upper surface and silvery below. The
flowering branches are borne in the axils of the leaves and are
hairy and from 7 to 15 centimeters long with numerous flowers.
The flowers are 5 millimeters long, unisexual, yellowish green,
and bell-shaped. The flower has no petals. The calyx is usually
5-toothed. The anthers are borne in a ring. The fruit is hard,
woody, smooth, shiny, 4 to 8 centimeters long, and boat-shaped.

Family 8, SONNERATIACEAE

Genus SONNERATIA

There are two species of Sonneratia in the Philippine man-
grove swamps, Sonneratia alba and Sonneratia caseolaris. These
two species can be readily distinguished by the shapes of the
leaves. The leaves of Sonneratia alba are narrow and pointed
at the apex, while those of Sonneratia caseolaris are about as
broad as long and rounded at the apex.

Key to the species.

Leaves pointed at apex Sonneratia alba.

Leaves rounded at apex Sonneratia caseolaris.

SONNERATIA ALBA Sm. (P'ate XV). PEDADA.

Local names: Payar (Pangasinan) ; palapat, palata, pagatpdt, and
hikau-hikauan (Bataan) ; pagatpdt (Manila, Bataan), lukabban, ilukabban
(Cagayan).

This species is a small tree occurring along the upper stretches
of tidal streams. The fruit is slightly acid and is used as an
article of food and also for making vinegar. This tree rarely
reaches a height of more than 9 meters. One individual with
a diameter of 80 centimeters has been reported. The air roots
and leaves are distinctly smaller than those of Sonneratia caseo-
laris. The air roots are sometimes used for the manufacture
of wooden soles of shoes. The bark contains a moderate pro-
portion of tannin, but is not often used as other species richer
in tannin are more readily available.

The wood is whitish and moderately hard. It rarely, if ever,
forms heartwood and is cut only with mixed inferior firewoods.

The smallest branches are jointed and four-angled. The leaves

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XV. SONNERATIA ALBA, FRUIT AND FLOWER.

40 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

are thick and leathery, narrow, and taper to a broad, short
petiole. They are from 4 to 10 centimeters long and from 2
to 4 centimeters wide. The flowers occur singly; the calyx is
green, 2.5 to 3 centimeters long, and divided into six to eight
angular lobes which are longer than the calyx tube. The petals
are six in number, narrow, pink or white, and about as long
as the calyx segments. The stamens are very numerous and
the style long. The fruit is hard, 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter,
rounded but depressed at the apex; the base. is surrounded by
the calyx tube, the lobes of which still persist when the fruit
is mature. The fruit contains many seeds.

SONNERATIA CASEOLARIS (Linn.) Engl. (Plates XVI, XVIII) . Pagatpat.

Local names: Pagatpat (Cebu, Camarines, Tayabas, Cagayan, Samar,
Agusan, Basilan, Zambales, Cotabato, Palawan, Mindoro, Zamboanga, Pa-
nay, Guimaras Island, Negros, Leyte, Bataan, Lanao) ; bunayon (Dinagat
Island) ; patpdt (Butuan) ; lukabban, ilukabbdn, lukabbadn (Cagayan) ;
pirara and palalan (Cotabato); bungdlon (Masbate).

This is a tree of the outer part of the swamp, and often occurs
even on exposed reefs. The trunk is swollen at the base, at
least when young. The air roots are usually from a few centi-
meters to 60 centimeters in length. In some places along river
banks, where the tree is growing in soft mud, they are much
longer, and have been known to reach a length of more than
2 meters. The bark is very dark gray. Sonneratia caseolaris
may reach a diameter of 175 centimeters and a clear length of
26 meters.

The wood is moderately hard and moderately heavy to heavy.
The sapwood is 3 to 8 centimeters thick, light grayish brown;
the heartwood light brown to dark chocolate. When wet or
under varnish, the heartwood of old mature trees looks almost
black. The grain is straight or very slightly crossed ; the texture
fine, very homogeneous, smooth, but not glossy ; it has a distinct
salty taste and a fishy or swampy odor, especially when fresh.
Boards season fairly well, but logs and heavy planks are liable
to check internally. It is easy to work. It lasts well in the
ground and even the sapwood is rarely attacked by insects ; the
heartwood is said to resist teredos very well. It is used for
piles ; posts, poles ; ties ; paving blocks ; ship, bridge, and wharf
building; general strong construction; doors; siding, sheathing,
ceiling, flooring, and all kinds of interior finish; ship planking
and decking; furniture and cabinetwork; and musical instru-
ments. The wood contains a small amount of salt, making the
use of copper nails and screws necessary. The air roots are
used as floats for fish nets and, being corky in texture, are

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

IF %*

pifsy

I,/

uya

V 1

\ ' ■ ! \

*■

v :':hM^M

Fig. 1. Sonneratia caseolaris on an open coast.

-£. *w*4

/•j^^,

%?v* r* *y x- fl™iA.jl;'!i^i^ji

*k* »Mj

Fig. 2.

Air roots of Sonneratia caseolaris.
PLATE XVI.

42 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

employed in the manufacture of inner soles for shoes and can
be used as a substitute for cork or pith.

The small branches are more rounded than in Sonneratia alba.
The leaves are thick and leathery, rounded at the apex, 6 to 10
centimeters long, and nearly as wide as long. Two or three
flower buds are usually found together. The calyx is green,
leathery, 3 to 4 centimeters long, and divided into six to nine
narrow segments, which are equal in length to the calyx tube
or longer. The petals are white, narrow, and fall off very
early; they are nearly as long as the calyx segments. Some-
times there are no petals. The stamens are very numerous and
the style long. The fruit is hard, rounded, depressed at the
apex, 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter, and surrounded nearly
to the middle by the calyx tube, the lobes of which are still
present when the fruit is mature. The fruit contains many
seeds.

Family 9, RHIZOPHORACEAE

The family Rhizophoraceae is the most important one in the
mangrove swamps and contains by far the largest number of
species. The members of this family in the swamps are dis-
tinguished at once from all other species by the fact that the
seed germinates and produces an elongated seedling before the
fruit drops from the tree. This character is shown clearly in
the illustrations of the members of this family. The conspicuous
part of the seedling that projects from the fruit is the radicle
or young root, which is very much longer than the plumule
or young shoot. The family Rhizophoraceae is represented in
the swamps by three genera ; Rhizophora, Bruguiera, and Ceriops.

Trees of the genus Rhizophora are easily distinguished from
all other trees in the swamps by the very numerous prop roots
which grow out from the trunk and branches. These are shown
very clearly on Plate I. The genera Bruguiera and Ceriops can
be separated by the shapes of the leaves, which in Bruguiera are
pointed at the apex and in Ceriops are rounded and notched at
the apex.

Key to the genera.

1. Leaves pointed at apex.

2. Tip of leaves with prominent projection of midrib Rhizophora.

2. Tip of leaves without projection of midrib Bruguiera.

1. Leaves rounded and notched at apex Ceriops.

Genus BRUGUIERA

The genus Bruguiera is represented in the Philippines by
four species: Bruguiera conjugata (busain), B, cylindrica (poto-
tan-lalaki), B. sexangula (pototan), and B. parviflora (Ian-

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

44 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

garai) . The wood is hard and heavy to very heavy ; the sap wood
2 to 4 centimeters thick, sometimes merging gradually into the
darker heartwood, but often almost indistinguishable from it;
the heartwood is pale dull red or reddish brown, sometimes with
very irregular, narrow but ill-defined, dark streaks. The grain
is straight and the texture fine. Beautiful conspicuous silver
grain occurs on radial sections. Logs check badly in seasoning,
but sawn lumber seasons without much checking and warping
if properly stacked under a roof. The wood is hard to saw, but
otherwise easy to work. It is said to last well in wet situations,
is rarely attacked by insects, and is said to resist teredos for
as much as seven or eight years. It has much the same uses
as that of the genus Rhizophora.

The leaves of Brnguiera are usually leathery in texture, oblong,
and entire. The flowers are rather large and are found in the
axils of the leaves. The calyx is split into eight to fourteen
lobes. The petals are oblong, and equal in number to the calyx-
lobes, two-lobed or notched at the apex, embracing the stamens
by pairs. There are sixteen to twenty-eight stamens. The
ovary is two- to four-celled. The fruit is included in or joined
to the calyx tube, is one-celled, one-seeded. The seed germinates
on the tree.

The different species of Bruguiera are readily distinguished
either in flower or fruit except in the case of Bruguiera conjugata
and Bruguiera sexangula, which have forms intermediate in
character between typical specimens of the two species. The
flowers of Bruguiera conjugata and Bruguiera sexangula are
large, 2.5 to 5 centimeters long; while those of Bruguiera par-
viflora and Bruguiera cylindrica are small and about a centimeter
in length. The flowers of Bruguiera conjugata are typically
red with the calyx divided into twelve to fifteen lobes; while
the flowers of Bruguiera sexangula are usually yellow with the
calyx divided into ten lobes. As the calyx-lobes of Bruguiera,
are persistent, the fruits of these two species can be readily
distinguished from those of the other two species of the genus
by the long calyx-lobes, while the two species themselves can
be separated according to the number of the lobes of the calyx.
Bruguiera cylindrica and Bruguiera parviflora can easily be dis-
tinguished by the fact that the inflorescences of Bruguiera cylin-
drica bear two or three flowers, while those of Bruguiera
parviflora have two to five flowers. The petals of Bruguiera
parviflora are yellow with a brown border at the tip and those
of Bruguiera cylindrica white. The fruits of these two species
are readily, distinguished by the fact that in Bruguiera cylin-

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XVIII. BRUGUIERA CONJUGATA WITH FLOWERS.

46 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

drica the calyx-lobes are bent away from the tip of the fruit,
while those of Brugiera parviflora are erect.

Key to the species.

1. Flowers yellow or red, 2.5 to 5 centimeters long; seedlings more than 6
millimeters in diameter; inflorescences with one flower each.

2. Flowers usually red Bruguiera conjugata.

2. Flowers usually yellow Bruguiera sexangula.

1. Flowers greenish yellow, about 1 centimeter in length; seedlings less
than 6 millimeters in diameter. Inflorescences with two to five flowers.

2. Sepals bent back from the apex of the fruit Bruguiera cylindrica.

2. Sepals erect on fruit, less than one-fourth the length of the ovary.

Bruguiera parviflora.
BRUGUIERA CONJUGATA (Linn.) Merr. and B. SEXANGULA (Lour.)
Poir.

These species are very similar, the chief difference between
the two being in the color of the flowers, red in the first case
and yellow in the second. These are the largest trees among
the true mangroves. Full-grown individuals are from 40 to 65
centimeters in diameter and from 18 to 23 meters in height.
The trees have an erect habit and thick-ridged, very dark,
almost black bark, which contains many large, brown, corky
pustules. The inner bark is of much the same character and
appearance as that of bakauan and contains about the same or
a slightly larger amount of tannin.

The wood is very much the same in structure and appearance
as that of bakauan, except that it is lighter red. At a short
distance from the base of the trees and extending out to a dis-
tance often as great as 5 or 6 meters are many air roots or
knees, which are formed by roots bending upward and may ex-
tend 45 centimeters into the air. The seedlings are stouter and
blunter than in the other trees of the family. They germinate
and grow to a length of 15 to 25 centimeters before dropping
from the tree.

BRUGUIERA CONJUGATA (Linn.) Merr. (Plate XVIII). Busain.

Local names: Pototan (Mindoro, Bataan, Tayabas, Negros, Leyte, Zam-
boanga, Basilan, and Cagayan) ; busai-ing (Tayabas) ; bakdu (Tinago
Island and Zambales) ; bakauan (Mindoro) ; busi-ing (Mindoro) ; bakdo
(Negros); busain or similar forms (Mindoro and Tayabas).

The leaves of Bruguiera conjugata are elliptic or elliptic-
oblong, pointed at the tip, the base wedge-shaped. When dry
the upper surface is shiny, the lower surface dull. The flowers
occur singly in the axils of the leaves and are 3 to 4 centimeters
in length and when fully opened slightly over 3 centimeters
in breadth. The calyx is bell-shaped, leathery in texture and

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XIX. BRUGUIERA SEXANGULA WITH FLOWERS.

48 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

cut for half its length into narrow pointed teeth, usually twelve
to fifteen in number. The petals are slightly shorter than the
calyx-lobes and equal to them in number, two-lobed at the apex
and with two to four bristles at the point of each lobe, hairy
at the base, otherwise smooth or nearly so. Opposite each
petal are two stamens, which are shorter than the petals. Each
alternate filament is short. The fruit is small; it is found in
the bottom of the calyx tube and contains a single seed which
germinates in situ, forming a cylindrical root 30 to 60 centi-
meters in length. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lam. is a synonym
of B. conjugata (Linn.) Merr.

BRUGUIERA SEXANGULA (Lour.) Poir. (Plates XIX, XX). Pototan.

Local names: Pototan or pututan (Tayabas, Zamboanga, Mindoro, Mas-
bate, Misamis, Cotabato, and Palawan) ; tagasa (Bataan) ; busdin, busding,
etc. (Mindoro, Tayabas, Lanao, and Zamboanga) ; sagasa (Cagayan) ;
dlay (Palawan) ; lagdsak (Palaui) ; bakduan (Manila) ; sagasak (Palaui
Island) ; langari (Basilan) ; pototan-babae (Palawan and Bataan) ; ba-
kduan-lalaki (Bataan); kalabayuan (Bataan); balinsardyan (Tayabas).

The leaves of Bruguiera sexangula are pointed at the tip, and
wedge-shaped at the base; the upper surface is shining, the
nerves faint; the lower surface is reddish-brown when dry, the
veins are very faint or obsolete, but the midrib is prominent.
The flowers are yellow, sometimes tinged with orange, and occur
singly in the axils of the leaves. They are usually 3 to 4 centi-
meters in length and when fully opened about 2.5 centimeters in
breath. The calyx is similar to that of Bruguiera conjugata,
but the lobes are usually only ten in number. The petals are
about half the length of the calyx-lobes and deeply divided into
two parts, with a stout bristle in the angle between the two
narrow lobes, and sometimes with two bristles at the end of
each lobe. The edges are densely clothed with stout white
hairs. The fruit is similar to that of Bruguiera conjugata,
except that the germinating root is shorter.

Bruguiera eriopetala W. & A. is a synonym of Bruguiera
sexangula (Lour.) Poir.

BRUGUIERA CYLINDRICA (Linn.) Blume (Plates XXI, XXII). PoTOTAN-

LALAKI.

Local names: Bakduan (Mindoro); bins (Cotabato); busdin (Mindoro);
hingdli (Negros) ; langdrai (Cotabato) ; magtongog (Masbate) ; pototan
and pototan-laldki (Tayabas and Mindoro) ; tangal-babdk (Mindoro) ; ka-
lapinai (Union) ; buis (Moro) ; tangdlan (Mindoro) ; biuis (Pangasinan) ;
magtangud (Masbate); biuas (Bataan).

Bruguiera cylindrica has flowers intermediate in size between
those of Bruguiera conjugata and Bruguiera parviflora. The
tree is usually of low growth, otherwise it is much like Bruguiera

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XX. BRUGU

161791 4

1ERA SINGULA W.TH IW.ATURE FBU.T.

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

PLATE XXI. BRUGUIERA CYUNDRICA, FRUITS AND FLOWERS.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

52 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

parviflora. This species occurs in the Philippines in an exceed-
ingly small amount. Swamps are frequently found which do
not contain it, and it is usually of small size.

Bruguiera cylindrica has rather thin leaves. They are soft,
7 to 12 centimeters in length, shiny, and narrowed at both ends.
The flowering stalks are found in the axils of the leaves ; they are
usually shorter than the petioles and bear two to three flowers.
The flowers are greenish, about 1 centimeter long and slightly
over a centimeter broad. The calyx is green and divided into
seven or eight narrow fleshy lobes. The petals are white, equal
in number with, but shorter than, the calyx-lobes. The apex
of each petal is divided into two lobes; the margins have scanty
white hairs outside; the apices are rounded and each is crowned
with from three to five brown bristles, while one bristle is
found in the angle between the two lobes. The stamens are
sixteen in number and unequal in length. The germinating
root is cylindrical and reaches a length of 15 to 20 centimeters
before the seed falls from the tree. Bruguiera caryophylloides
Blume. is a synonym of Bruguiera cylindrica (Linn.) Blume.

BRUGUIERA PARVIFLORA W. & A. (Plates XXIII, XXIV). Langarai.

Local names: Pototan (Tayabas, Cagayan, Zamboanga); hangdlai or
haiigdrai (Mindoro, Masbate, Leyte, Iloilo, Negros) ; hingdlai (Polillo) ;
langarai or langdri' (Zamboanga, Tayabas, Masbate, Negros, and Zamba-
les) ; bakduan-laldki (Batangas) ; bubntigan, biosan (Samar).

Bruguiera parviflora is a tall, slender tree which is often found
in solid stands in the interior of the swamp. Trees 15 to 30
centimeters in diameter and 12 to 18 meters in height are full
grown, but trees up to 55 centimeters in diameter are found.
The bark is gray, hard, and thick, and has broad, smooth ridges.
The air roots are similar to those of Bruguiera conjugata and
B. sexangula, but usually smaller; the wood, except for being
lighter in color, is also much like that of these two species.

The seedling is of the same color as the leaves, slender and
nearly cylindrical. The roots of the seedling grow to about 10
or 12 centimeters in length before the seed drops from the tree.

The leaves of Bruguiera parviflora are yellowish green, 6 to
10 centimeters in length, and rather narrow, particularly at the
base. The upper surface is shiny, the lower dull. The flowering
shoots are in the axils of the leaves and bear two to five yellowish
green flowers. The whole flowering shoot, including the flowers,
is considerably longer than the petioles of the leaves. The
flowers are about a centimeter in length and about 6 millimeters
in breadth. The calyx tube is cylindrical and ends in eight
pointed lobes about one-fourth the length of the calyx tube.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXIII. BRU6UIERA PARVIFLORA WITH FLOWERS.

54 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

The petals are the same in number as the calyx-lobes but shorter.
They are yellow with a dark brown border at the tip. They are
two-lobed and each bears three or four hairs, while a single hair
is found between two lobes; otherwise the petals are smooth.
The stamens are sixteen in number and of unequal size; two
are embraced by each petal.

Genus CERIOPS

The two species of Ceriops, C. tagal and C. roxburghiana, are
known as tangal. They are separated only by very minute floral
characters. Tangal is a small tree with rather smooth, light
gray or brown bark, which is perforated in many places by dark-
colored lenticels. Below the outer corky layer, there is more or
less orange color. The bark contains a high percentage of tan-
nin. The trunk flares at the base. A short distance from the
trunk some of the roots bend upward to form small knees.

The sapwood is small in amount and scarcely distinct from
the heartwood. The heartwood is very hard and heavy, orange
red, changing on exposure to reddish brown. It gives an irides-
cent orange-red color to water. The grain is straight and the
texture fine and dense, taking a smooth, almost polished surface
under sharp tools. It does not check badly, but is somewhat
liable to warp in seasoning and is not difficult to work except for
its hardness. The wood is used for much the same purposes as
that of Rhizophora.

The leaves are leathery in texture, opposite, and wider toward
the apex than near the base. They are notched at the apex. The
flowers are small and light greenish yellow. The calyx has five
or six lobes. The petals, five or six in number, are inserted at
the base of a ten- to twelve-lobed fleshy disk. There are ten to
twelve stamens, whose stalks are inserted between the lobes of
the disk. The style is short and the stigma simple. The seed-
lings are angled in cross section and may reach a length of about
35 centimeters before falling from the tree.

Tangal is found near the mouths of tidal streams. Full-grown
trees are from 15 to 40 centimeters in diameter and from 8 to
11 meters in height.

Key to the species.

Flowers few on an inflorescence, each with a short stalk; apex of petals
with three to four club-shaped appendages Ceriops tagal.

Flowers few on an inflorescence, without individual stalks; apex of petals
lacerate, that is with a torn appearance Ceriops roxburghiana.

CERIOPS TAGAL (Perr.) C. B. Rob. Tangal.

Local names: Tangal (Tagalog, Bisayan, Zambales, and Zamboanga) ;

tungod (Bisaya in Negros) ; tanghdl (Mindoro) ; magtongod (Mindoro) ;

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXIV. FRUIT OF BRUGUIERA PARVIFLORA.

56 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

tangdl-lalaki (Mindoro) ; tungud (Jolo) ; tongog (Masbate) ; tagdsa (Ba-
taan) ; pakat (Palawan) ; tonggui (Culion) ; tungog (Visayan) ; rongon
(Zambales) ; rungon (Pangasinan).

The leaves of Ceriops tagal are from 5.5 to 7 centimeters in
length and from 2 to 4.5 centimeters in breadth; the petioles,
from 2 to 3 centimeters in length. The flowers are about 6
millimeters long and are borne on short stalks. The calyx-lobes
are oblong and somewhat blunt. The petals are oblong; the
apex flat or notched and with three or more club-shaped append-
ages. Stamens ten, nearly as long as the petals.

Ceriops candollearia H. & A. is a synonym of Ceriops tagal
(Perr.) C. B. Rob.

CERIOPS ROXBURGHIANA Arn. (Plates XXV, XXVI). Tangal.

Local names: Matangdl (Bataan) ; tangal (Tayabas and Camarines) ;
tungung (Surigao) ; bakdiian (Bataan and Mindoro) ; bulubadidng (Panay) ;
tungug (Negros).

Ceriops roxburghiana has leaves up to 11 centimeters in length
and 6 in breadth, petioles 1.5 to 3 centimeters in length. The
flowers are about 5 millimeters long and about 5 millimeters
broad and do not have individual stalks. The five or six calyx-
lobes are short and somewhat pointed. The petals are oblong,
white when young, turning to brown; the apex notched or
slightly flattened and with a torn appearance.

Genus RHIZOPHORA

Bakauan is the name given to the species of Rhizophora.
These make up a very large part of the swamp and are often
the most conspicuous constituent of it.

These trees are distinguished from all others by their much-
branched prop roots, which hold the trees up out of the water.
This is perhaps the reason why the wood of these trees is usually
sounder than that of others from the swamp. Besides the roots
which come out from the base of the trunk, there are often large
numbers of roots developed from the lower branches. The bark
is very dark, almost black, coarsely ridged, and about 2 centi-
meters thick. It contains a high percentage of tannin.

The sapwood is yellow or whitish ; the heartwood dark orange
to reddish brown. The transition from sapwood to heartwood
may be either gradual or abrupt. The wood is hard and heavy.
The sapwood is 3 to 5 centimeters thick, and in old trees very
sharply distinguished from the dark heartwood. The grain is
straight and the texture fine and dense. It has a conspicuous

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

Ll.

I
O
DC

DQ
X

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Q_
O

X
X

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

PLATE XXVI. CERIOPS ROXBURGHIANA WITH FRUITS.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXVII. RHIZOPHORA CANDELARIA, FRUIT AND OLD FLOWERS FROM WHICH

PETALS HAVE FALLEN.

60 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

silver grain. Logs and large timbers are liable to check badly ;
but, if the wood is properly sawn and carefully stacked, it seasons
with little warping and splitting. It is hard to saw, but not
otherwise difficult to work. It lasts well in wet situations and
is rarely attacked by insects.

The wood is used for salt water and foundation piling, mine
timbers, house posts, furniture, and cabinet-work; if properly
sawn and carefully seasoned, it would make an excellent flooring.
On account of its shape, great strength, and durability when
submerged in fresh water, it is specially recommended for sub-
merged foundation piles.

The pear-shaped fruit is brown, with a granular or roughened
surface. The seedling is long, spindle-shaped, and green. It
grows downward and out of the fruit before the latter falls from
the tree. The surface of the seedling is very smooth, except
for occasional dark brown lenticels which project from the sur-
face. The seedling grows to a length of 75 to 100 centimeters
before dropping into the mud, where it promptly takes root.
The maximum diameter attained by bakauan is about 60 centi-
meters; exceptional trees sometimes have a clear length of 25
meters. The average dimensions are, however, much smaller
than the figures just given. Where there is an abundance of
light, the bole is usually crooked, low branched, and practically
worthless except for firewood. In the interior of the forest
bakauan is fairly straight, round boled, and has a moderately
spreading crown.

The calyx is four-lobed. The petals are four in number, and
slightly shorter than the calyx-lobes.

The two species of Rhizophora are easily distinguished, either
in flower or fruit. The inflorescence stalks of Rhizophora can-
delaria are very short, being shorter than the petioles, occur
below the leaves, and each bears two flowers. The inflorescence
stalks of Rhizophora mucronata are among the leaves, as long
as the petioles, and each bears from three to seven flowers. The
fruits of the two species are easily separated by the length of
the stalks. All of these characters are shown plainly in the
illustrations of the species.

Key to the species.

Flowers below the leaves; inflorescences with two flowers; stalks of in-
florescences shorter than the petioles Rhizophora candelaria.

Flowers among the leaves; inflorescences with three to seven flowers; stalk
of inflorescences as long as the petioles Rhizophora mucronata.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXVIII. RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA, INFLORESCENCES AND FLOWER.

62 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

RHIZOPHORA CANDELARIA DC. (Plates I, XXVII). Bakauan-LALAKI.

Local names: Bakduan (Tagalog); bakdu (Visayan) ; bakduan-babde
(Tagalog and Bisaya, Zamboanga) ; uakdtan (Mindoro) ; bakduan-laldki
(Mindanao) ; bakad (Zambales) ; bakhau (Samar, Capiz) ; bakau-laldki
(Pampanga) ; bangkdu (Davao).

The leaves of Rhizophora canclelaria are 10 to 16 centimeters
in length, leathery in texture, green and shiny, and oblong-
elliptic in shape. The apex is pointed or ends in a thornlike pro-
longation of the midrib. The stalks of inflorescences are found
in the axils of fallen leaves and are shorter than the petioles
of the leaves. Two flowers are borne on each inflorescence stalk.
The flowers are pale greenish yellow.

This species is usually known by the erroneous name Rhizo-
phora conjugata.

RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA Lam. (Plates XXVIII, XXIX). Bakauan-

BABAE.

Local names: Bakduan (Tagalog); bakhao (Surigao) ; bakdu (Negros) ;
bakduan-laldki (Zambales) ; bakduang-laldki (Zamboanga) ; bangkdu (Taga-
log in Tayabas) .

The leaves of Rhizophora mucronata are leathery in texture,
oblong-elliptic, shiny, and up to 16 centimeters in length. The
apex of the leaf terminates in a slender, thornlike prolongation
of the midrib. The inflorescence stalks are among the leaves.
They are from 2.5 to 4 centimeters in length, about as long as
the petioles of the leaves, forked at the apex, and bear from three
to seven flowers. The flowers are white to cream color.

Family 10, COMBRETACEAE

Genus LUMNITZERA

Key to the species.

Flowers scarlet Lumnitzera littorea.

Flowers white Lumnitzera racemosa.

LUMNITZERA LITTOREA Voigt. (Plate XXX). Tabau.

Local names: Bating or bakting (Tawi-tawi, Jolo) ; daluru-babae (Taya-
bas) ; sagdsa f (Dinagat Island) ; maoro (Surigao) ; kolasiman (Culion
Island) ; libdto (Tayabas, Polillo, Palawan) ; panting -panting (Basilan) ;
kalapini' (Zambales) ; kuldsi (Mindoro) ; bulokbulok (Negros Occidental) ;
agndia (Zambales) ; karifurug (Cagayan) ; anildi (Mindoro) ; papdsil (Ta-
yabas) ; magalolo (Polillo) ; santing (Moro and Tawi-tawi) ; tabau (Capiz,
Negros, Zamboanga, Sorsogon, Masbate) ; dulokdulok (Masbate) ; sala'sd
(Occidental Negros).

This species is a tall tree found along rivers in the swamps,

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXIX. RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA WITH FRUIT.

64 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

and a smaller tree or shrub where conditions for growth are
less favorable. It reaches a diameter of 50 centimeters and a
height of 18 meters. The bark is gray when the tree is young
and often nearly black when mature, coarsely furrowed, rather
thick and corky. The air roots are few in number and similar
to those of Bruguiera conjugata, B. sexangula, and B. cylindrica.

The wood has a distinct roselike odor when fresh. The sap-
wood and heartwood are not very different in color; the wood
is pale brown, straight grained, dense and smooth, with a fine
texture, and takes a silky finish under a sharp plane. It seasons
well and is easy to work. It is used for piles, poles, house posts,
ties, paving blocks, bridges, and wharves, general strong con-
struction, ship planking and decks, handles, and cabinet-work.

The leaves are 5 to 8 centimeters long, alternate, very thick
and fleshy, rounded at the apex and notched, and clustered
toward the ends of the twigs. The petioles are very short. The
flowers are bright scarlet and about 8 millimeters in length.
They are borne in considerable numbers at the ends of branches.
The calyx tubes terminate in five lobes. The petals are scarlet,
five in number, and about 7 millimeters long. There are five
to ten, but usually seven stamens, which are the same color and
twice as long as the petals. The fruit is woody, elongated, about
2 centimeters long and 7 millimeters wide, narrowed at each end,
crowned by a persistent calyx rim, and contains a single seed.

LUMNITZERA RACEMOSA Wild. KuLASl'.

Local names: Tabdu (Iloilo, Tayabas) ; siddsi' (Rizal, Manila); kuldsi'
(Bataan) .

This species differs from the last in being of much smaller size
and in having white flowers. This tree grows in mud in the
swamp or in sand at the edge of the swamp. The wood is like
that of Lumnitzera littorea.

The leaves are fleshy, green, shiny, 2.5 to 7 centimeters in
length, the apex rounded and notched, the base pointed, the
petioles very short. The flowering shoots are borne in the axils
of leaves and are from 2 to 6 centimeters long. The calyx is
green, 5 to 6 millimeters long, with five short lobes. The petals
are white, about 4 millimeters long, and five in number. The
stamens are white, about as long as the petals, and five to ten
in number. The fruit is woody, green, oblong, about 1.5 centi-
meters long, narrowed at both ends, crowned by the persistent
calyx rim, and contains a single seed.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXX. LUMNITZERA LITTOREA, FRUIT AND FLOWERS.
161791 5

66 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Family 11, MYRTACEAE

Genus OSBORNIA

OSBORNIA OCTODONTA F. Muell. (Plate XXXI). Tawalis.

Local names: Tuawis (Palawan); tiwayos (Masbate) ; gunhun (Basi-
lan) ; maligdng (Polillo Island) ; tawalis (Tayabas, Camarines) ; sagasd'
(Iloilo) ; tabdu (Negros) ; duluk-duluk and sagasd' (Negros) ; monotbonot
(Leyte) ; kuldsi' (Zamboanga) ; tuanio (Tayabas).

Osbornia octodonta is a small tree with a very crooked trunk.
The bark is reddish brown and very shaggy, and is sometimes
used in the caulking of boats. The wood is light grayish brown,
fine grained, and exceedingly durable.

All parts of the plant are smooth except the flowers, which
are hairy. The leaves are opposite, rounded at the tip, pointed
at the base, about 4 centimeters long, and 1 to 2 centimeters
wide. The flowers are white, less than a centimeter in length,
without stalks, and are borne either singly or in groups of a
few flowers either in the axils of the leaves or at the ends of
branches. Petals are lacking. The calyx is bell-shaped and ter-
minates in eight lobes. The fruit is included within the calyx
tube and contains one or two seeds.

Family 12, MYRSINACEAE

Genus AEGICERAS

Key to the species.

Leaves up to 4.5 centimeters wide; flowers in rounded clusters, all of the

flower stalks joined at about the same point Aegiceras corniculatum.

Leaves 3 centimeters wide or less; flowers in compound inflorescences.

Aegiceras floridum.

AEGICERAS CORN ICULATUM (Linn.) Blanco. (Plates XXXII-XXXIV) .

Saging-saging.

Local names: Timbambdkis, pildpil, pagatpdt, pipisik (Bataan) ; saging-
saging (Capiz, Negros, Lanao, Surigao, Mindoro) ; kindug-kindug, sulasig,
tinduk-tindukan (Tayabas) ; dumanai (Cagayan) ; tindok-tindok (Leyte,
Tayabas) ; tindok (Mindoro) ; tunduk-tundukan (Polillo Island) ; batag-
batdg (Zambales) ; bulali (Negros); tayokon (Surigao).

Aegiceras corniculatum is a small tree or shrub which is found
along streams in the inner part of the swamp and, occasionally,
on more or less sandy spots in the outer part of the swamp. The
bark is dark brown. The tree rarely exceeds 8 meters in height
and is usually much smaller.

The leaves are alternate, leathery, smooth, rounded and
notched at the apex, somewhat pointed at the base, usually from
4 to 10 centimeters in length, and 2.5 to 6 centimeters wide ; the

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXXI. OSBORNIA OCTODONTA WITH FRUITS.

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

o
z
oc
o
o

X
X
X

UJ
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DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

70 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

midrib is slender; the petioles are usually about a centimeter or
less in length. The flowers are fragrant and borne in rounded
clusters, the bases of the stalks all rising from nearly the same
point. The flower stalks are slender and 1 to 2 centimeters in
length. The calyx has 5 lobes, which are leathery, twisted to the
left and overlapping to the right, and about 6 millimeters long.
The corolla is white and has a short tube about 6 millimeters long
with five pointed lobes, which overlap to the right in the bud and
are about as long as the tube. There are five stamens, which are
inserted on the corolla tube and are longer than the corolla lobes.
The fruit is shaped like a miniature banana except that it usually
ends in a sharp point. It is up to 7 centimeters in length and
contains a single, elongated seed which fills the cavity of the
fruit.

AEGICERAS FLORIDUM R. and S. (Plate XXXV). Tinduktindukan.

This species is much less abundant than Aegiceras cornicu-
latum and differs from it in having smaller leaves, which are
3 centimeters or less in width, and in having branched inflores-
cence stalks.

Family 13, APOCYNACEAE

Genus CERBERA
CERBERA MANGHAS Linn. (Plate XXXVI) . Baraybay.

Local names: Buto-buto (Surigao, Dinagat Island); bayag-usd, pan-
dakaki (Camarines) ; baraybay (Baler); butd-butd (Bataan), bat-ano
(Camiguin Island) ; kubi (Zambales) ; ditd (Moro) ; lipdta (Palawan) ;
panabulon (Negros) ; dung as (Cotabato).

Cerbera manghas is usually a shrub, although it may some-
times grow into a small tree. It occurs in situations similar to
Excoecaria agallocha. Cerbera manghas has milky sap like that
of Excoecaria,

The leaves are shiny, narrowed at both ends, and about 20
centimeters long. The flowers are white, fragrant, about 5 centi-
meters in diameter, and occur on terminal branches. The calyx
tube is short and ends in five lobes, which are spreading, pale
green, pointed, and about 2 centimeters long. The corolla tube
is slender, greenish white, large above, and about 4 centimeters
long. The upper part of the corolla is spreading, about 5 centi-
meters in diameter, white with a purple center, and divided into
five lobes. The fruit is smooth, green, rounded, and about 6
centimeters long.

Cerbera odollam Gaertn. is a synonym of Cerbera manghas
Linn.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXXIV. AEGICERAS CORNICULATUM WITH FRUITS.

o*^

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

ID
DC

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2
Q

OC
O

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U
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X
X
X

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

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CO
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74 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Family 14, VERBENACEAE

Genus AVICENNIA

Trees of Avicennia are distinguished from all others in the
swamps by the lower surface of the leaves being light gray or
white. This character is most nearly approched in Heritiera,
the lower surfaces of the leaves of which have a silvery
appearance.

Key to the species.

Tips of leaves usually somewhat rounded Avicennia officinalis.

Tips of leaves pointed Avicennia alba.

AVICENNIA OFFICINALIS Linn. (Plates XXXVII, XXXVIII). Api-api.

Local names: Midpi (Samar, Leyte, Masbate) ; api-api (Capiz, Ba-
taan, Davao, Zamboanga, Cotabato, Palawan, Mindoro) ; kalapini mangit-
it (Zambales) ; bungdlon (Marinduque, Tayabas, Pangasinan, Zambales,
Mindoro, Capiz, Iloilo, Camarines, and Negros) ; kuldsi (Cotabato) ; ka-
lapinV (Pangasinan, Bataan, and Zambales) ; pipisig or pipisik (Tayabas,
Camarines, Mindoro) ; pidpi (Iloilo, Capiz, Agusan, Tayabas) ; liiigog
(Cagayan) ; piksik (Mindoro).

This species is a tree of the outer part of the swamp. The
bark is usually light gray or brown and rather smooth but
finely checked by small cracks. The air roots are numerous,
small, 8 to 20 centimeters high, and conical. This species is of
little value. In swamps where cutting has been excessive, and
more valuable species removed, the latter are often largely re-
placed by Avicennia officinalis.

The wood is hard, heavy, brittle, but difficult to split, having
an exceedingly crossed spiral grain. The sapwood is 4 to 6
centimeters thick, whitish, turning in drying to gray or light
brown, in large trees sharply marked off from heartwood. The
heartwood is purplish gray. The grain is very conspicuous from
alternate bands of hard and soft tissue, very strongly crossed,
often irregularly wavy. The texture of the hard tissue is ex-
tremely fine and dense ; of the soft tissue, somewhat coarser. The
wood seasons well, but the sapwood is liable to stain badly if
not seasoned quickly. It is not difficult to work. The durability
is said to be poor, but the wood is rarely attacked by beetles.
It is used locally for rice mortars ; is a favorite in some regions
for smoking fish ; a wood that for its peculiar color and attractive
grain should find a good place in small cabinetwork; recom-
mended for trial in creosoted paving blocks.

The leaves are leathery, opposite, dark green above, very pale
and hairy beneath, usually somewhat rounded at the apex,
narrow at the base, 5 to 10 centimeters long and 2.5 to 5 centi-
meters broad; midrib stout and very prominent. The flowers

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

PLATE XXXVII. AVICENNIA OFFICINALIS, FLOWERS AND IMMATURE FRUIT.

76 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

are small, without individual stalks, and are in small heads on
stiff angular flowering stalks, which occur either two together
in the axils of the upper leaves or several at the end of a branch.
There are three to seven flowers in each head. The corolla is
orange-yellow. The corolla tube is very short, cylindrical, and
has four lobes. The lobes are 5 millimeters in length, hairy
without, and nearly smooth within. The calyx has five lobes,
which are 2 to 8 millimeters long, hairy on the margins; the
lower part of the back hairy, the rest smooth. There are four
stamens, which are inserted on the throat of the corolla and
extend beyond the corolla. The fruit is a capsule, 2.5 to 4 centi-
meters long, and contains a single seed which completely fills
the capsule.

AVICENNIA ALBA Blume. Api-api.

Local names: Kachuchis (Surigao) ; pidpi (Misamis) ; pundung (Co-
tabato)

This species is apparently less abundant than Avicennia of-
ficinalis and differs from it largely in inconspicuous floral
characters. The wood appears to be identical with that of
Avicennia officinalis.

The leaves are leathery, pointed at the apex, narrowed at the
base, either smooth on both surfaces or with whitish hairs be-
neath, especially when young; 5 to 7 centimeters long, 2.5 to
5 centimeters broad. The midrib is prominent. The flowers,
without individual stalks, grow either in small heads or in
spikes. The calyx has segments, which are thick, 2.5 milli-
meters long, fringed with hair, and slightly hairy at the back
near the base. The corolla tube is very short and sometimes
almost lacking. It has four smooth pointed lobes, 2.5 milli-
meters long. There are four stamens inserted on the corolla
throat. These do not reach to the end of the corolla. The
fruit is a capsule 1 to 2 centimeters in length and contains one
seed which completely fills the lower part of the capsule.

Family 15, ACANTHACEAE

Genus ACANTHUS

Key to the species.

Flowers blue; corolla about 4 centimeters long Acanthus ilicifolius.

Flowers white; corolla about 2 centimeters long Acanthus ebracteatus.

ACANTHUS ILICIFOLIUS Linn. (Plate XXXIX). Diliuariu.

Local names: Lagoiloi (Agusan) ; gregorio (Bisaya) ; dagudri, galura,
tindoi, tinlui (Tagalog) ; daludri (Bataan) ; santing-santing (Moro) ;
duludriu (Mindoro).

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

78 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Acanthus ilicifolius is a shrub 0.5 to 1.5 meters high. It has
prop roots. The leaves are opposite and up to 18 centimeters
in length and 8 in breadth. They have very short petioles.
The flowers are about 4 centimeters long, borne on spikes, and
are surrounded by two bracts and a bracteole. The calyx is
divided near the base into four parts, two of which are much
longer than the other two. The fruit is a capsule from 2 to 2.5
centimeters long.

ACANTHUS EBRACTEATUS Vahl. TlGBAU.

This species is also known by the same names as Acanthus
ilicifolius. The flowers of Acanthus ebracteatus are surrounded
by two bracts but no bracteole. The corolla is white and about
2 centimeters long. The calyx is shorter than in Acanthus ilici-
folius. Otherwise the species is similar to Acanthus ilicifolius.

Family 16, RUBIACEAE

Genus SCYPHIPHORA

SCYPHIPHORA HYDROPHYLLACEA Gaertn. (Plate XL). NfLAD.

Local names: Arinaya, (Ilocos Norte); landing (Culion, Tayabas) ;
tugisak (Cotabato) ; balasidi (Zambales) ; kuldsi' (Tayabas) ; hanbulali,
tabdu (Negros) ; sagasd (Zamboanga) ; nilad or nilar (Tagalog).

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea is a small tree growing along
streams in the swamps. It has dark-colored bark. All parts of
the plant except the inside of the corolla tube are without hairs.

The leaf blades are smooth, leathery, rounded at the apex,
and pointed at the base, 4 to 10 centimeters long, and 2 to 5
centimeters wide. The petioles are usually 1 to 2 centimeters
long. The flowers are small, white, often tinged with red, and
borne in compact groups. The calyx is about 4 millimeters long.
The calyx tube ends in four or five small teeth. The corolla
tube is cylindrical, about as long as the calyx with four or five
lobes which are about half as long as the tube. The fruit is
somewhat cylindrical, with eight to ten grooves, and usually a
little less than a centimeter in length.

Family 17, COMPOSITAE

Genus PLUCHEA

PLUCHEA INDICA Linn. KALAPINi'.

Local names: Banig-banig (Moro) ; kalapini' (Manila); manzanilla
(Batangas) ; lagundi'-ldte (Zambales).

Pluchea indica is a small shrub 1 to 4 meters in height. The
leaves are 1 to 7 centimeters long and widest toward the tip,
which is slightly pointed ; the base narrows to a point ; the margin

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

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I

X
X
X

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80 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

is toothed. The flowers are light blue and are in dense heads
arranged in compact inflorescences at the ends of branches. The
fruit is minute and crowned with white hairlike projections.

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS

The present condition of the mangrove swamps in the Philip-
pines is very variable. In places close to centers of population,
as in the immediate vicinity of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu, the
swamps have been so closely cut-over as to make them almost
valueless. In many other places the most valuable trees have
been largely removed, in other areas the swamps yield a large
quantity of good material, and still others are practically un-
touched. The largest remaining virgin swamps in the Islands
are probably in Palawan and Mindanao, although in both of
these islands a considerable amount of cutting and bark collecting
has been carried on.

A careful study of the swamps near Port Banga, Mindanao,
has been made by Dr. H. N. Whitford and Forester W. I. Hut-
chinson. The following extracts from their report describes
this forest:

The mangle forests of the Port Banga tract cover an area of 2,463
hectares (6,086 acres). The largest continuous body of swamp, varying
in width from 0.5 to 2 kilometers (0.31 to 1.42 miles), extends from the
head of Balon Bay northward to the Baluan River. Scattered areas, some
of considerable extent, also occur near the Tungauan River, and in Ticbucay
Bay and Port Banga.

Light cuttings have been made in these swamps for many years, and
since 1902 certain situations have been heavily culled for posts and poles.
Tanbark has also been extensively exploited, many areas being practically
stripped of Tangal, the species from which the bark is obtained.

The mangle forest is made up of a dense stand of small and medium-
sized trees, many of which are raised on stilt roots from 1 to 3 meters
(3 to 10 feet) above the ground. The characteristic species of the stand
are Pagatpat, Bakauan, and Pototan. In certain localities Piagau and
Langarai form pure stands, to the practical exclusion of all other trees.
Tangal and several minor species occur scattered throughout all the swamps.

The soil is soft, black mud of unknown depth. Underbrush and litter
are entirely absent. The only method of travel through many of the
swamps is by climbing along on the stilt roots of the trees.

In the area surveyed, Pagatpat and Bacauan formed over 90 per cent
of the stand. The average diameter of all trees over 40 cm. (16 inches)
is 47 cm. (18 inches). The largest tree is Pagatpat, which reaches a
maximum diameter of 80 centimeters (31 inches) or more, with a maximum
clear length of 17.50 meters (57 feet). The clear length of Bakauan
almost equals Pagatpat, and that of Pototan exceeds it, but the greater per-
centage of these species falls below 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter.

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

161791 6

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Where the stand is dense, the trees are tall, straight, and clean-boled.
In open situations, they are low-branched and crooked. Bakauan is the
only important swamp tree with stilt roots.

Table I. — Stand table for 1 hectare of mangrove swamp forest near
Port Bang a, Mindanao. Average of 6.25 hectares.

[Data from H. N. Whitford and W. I. Hutchinson.]
AVERAGE NUMBER OF TREES 30 CENTIMETERS AND OVER IN DIAMETER.

Diameter at breast high
or above buttresses.

Bakauan.

72.96

22.24

3.04

0.32

Pagat-
pat.

Tangal.

6.08
2.24
0.32
0.32

Pototan.

Total.

87.84
35.84
11.36
6.40
2.56
2.08
0.48
0.32

Other
species.

1.12
0.64
0.32

Grand
total.

cm.
30

8,00
10.88
7.84
5.44
2.56
2.08
0.48
0.32

0.80
0.48
0.16
0.32

88.96
36.48
11.68
6.40
2.56
2.08
0.48
0.32

70. _

100

Total _

98.56
66.17

37.60
25.24

8.96
6.01

1.76
1.18

146. 88
98.60

2.08
1.40

148. 96
100. 00

AVERAGE NUMBER OF TREI

]S 40 CENTIMETERS AND OVER IN DIAMETER.

25.60
42.67

29.60
49.32

UM DIA]

2.88
4.80

METER

0.96
1.60

59.04
98.40

0.96
1.60

60
100

AVERAGE AND MAXIM

OF COM!

AERCIAL

TREES.

Species.

Average diameter j

breast high or |

above buttresses. I

Bakauan

Pagatpat

Pototan

Tangal

Average

Trees 30
centime-
ters and
over.

cm.
32.97
48.26
40.00
34.28

Trees 40
centime-
ters and
over.

cm.
41.44
53.19
48.33
43.33 j

Maxi-
mum

diameter
breast

high or
above

buttres-

cm.
60
100
60
60

38.88 ,

46. 57 | .

Number
of trees
meas-
ured.

616

235

Table I shows the number of trees over 30 centimeters in dia-
meter according to species and diameter classes of 10 centimeters.
In Table II are shown the number of poles 6 to 15 centimeters
and 16 to 25 centimeters in diameter. These figures were ob-
tained in a virgin stand.

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table II. — Stand of poles on one hectare in mangrove swamp forest, Port
Banga area, Mindanao. Average of 6.25 hectares.

[Data from H. N. Whitford and W. I. Hutchinson.]

Pole class.

Average number of poles per hectare.

Baka-
uan.

Tangal.

Pagat-
pat.

toten. 1 TotaI '

Miscel- r«— «^
species. ""•*•

1.92 73.27

!
1.12 | 95.20

Per
cent.

Aver-
age

stand
per

acre.

Small, 6 to 15 cm. di-
ameter _..

57.75

74.88

7.52
11.04

5.44

7.04

0.64 71.35
1 12 QA ^ Q

43.5
56.5

29.65
38.53

Large. 16 to 25 cm. di-
ameter

Total _.._

132. 63

78.73

18.56
11.02

12.48
7.41

1.76
1.04

165. 43
98.20

3.04 ! 168.47
1.80 ; 100.00

100.0

68.18

Per cent

Dr. F. W. Foxworthy has found stands of from 300 to 650
cubic meters per hectare in large swamps in Mindanao.

Tables III to V, taken from a report by Ranger Vicente Castillo
on a virgin mangrove swamp on Basiad Bay in Tayabas Prov-
ince, give a good idea of the original composition of a mangrove
swamp. In these tables cords are calculated by allowing 30 per
cent for air space in stacking. One cord is the equivalent of 3.62
cubic meters.

An examination of these tables shows that the stand of timber
in a virgin forest is comparatively heavy.

Table III. — Stand of firewood 10 centimeters and, over in diameter on
2.3 hectares. Survey applicable to UhO hectares between Mapinghil
and Poctol Point, Capalonga, Tayabas, Luzon.

[Data from report by Ranger Vicente Castillo.]

Species.

Trees.

Volume.

Busain _

816
620
257
74
46
2

cm, m.
146.22
73.33
36.66
3.90
2.21
0.55

Cords.
58.49

Langarai

29.33

Bakauan _

14.66

Tabigi

1.56

Tangal .

0.88

Pagatpat

0.22

Total

1,815
789

262. 87
114,29

105. 14

Stand per hectare

45.71

Species
by num-
ber of
trees.

Species
by vol-
ume.

Per cent.
45.0
34.2
14.2
4.0
2.5
0.1

Per cent.

55.6

27.9

13.9

1.5

0.8

0.2

84 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table III. — Stand of fireivood 10 centimeters and over, etc. — Continued.

NUMBER OF TREES AND VOLUME BY DIAMETER CLASSES.

Diameter class in centimeters.

Species.

Busain

Langarai ...
Bakauan ...

Tabigi

Tangal

Pagatpat...

Total .

20.

25.

Trees, j Volume. Trees. ! Volume. I Trees, j Volume, i Trees. [ Volume.

100

273

cu. m. j
3.55 I

17.17 j
1.58 |
49 | 1.61

29 | 0.78 j

1 CU. 7)1.

124 | 10. 11 i
236 30.76 ;

3.54 j
1.45 J
0.91
I

j cu. m.

267 ! 42.84

86 18. 15

10.04
0.84 j
0.52 !

237
25
67

cu. m.
58.00
7.25
15.40

331 81.20

Species.

Diameter class in centimeters.

Busain

Langarai ...
Bakauan ...

Tabigi

Tangal

Pagatpat ...

Total .

30.
Trees. Volume.

j cu. m.
72 24. 17

29.21

35.

Trees. Volume.

cu. m.
14 . 6.55

40.

Trees. Volume.

! cu. m.
2 ' 1.00

7.61 j

In Table III busain (Bruguiera conjugata) is represented by
more individuals and about twice the volume of any other
species, and contains more than half the total volume. Langarai
(Bruguiera parviflora) is the next most numerous species and
after busain is represented by a larger volume than any other
species. These two species of Bruguiera compose 83.5 per cent
of the total volume of the stand. Bakauan (Rhizophora spp.)
contains 13.9 per cent of the total stand. The other species are
present in small quantities. The greatest volume is found within
the 20- and 25-centimeter diameter classes, these classes com-
posing 58 per cent of the total volume.

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table IV. — Stand of firewood 10 centimeters and over in diameter on S.8
hectares, between Mapinghil Point and Basiad River, Capalonga, Ta-
yabas, Luzon. Survey applicable to 890 hectares.

[Data from report by Ranger Vicente Castillo.]

Species.

Tangal

Bakauan

Busain

Langarai

Pagatpat

Tabigi

Total

Stand per hectare.

Trees.

Volume.

990
572
358
456
6
11

cu.m.
61.19
50.99
36.08
33.46
2.28
1.08

Cords.
24.48
20.40
14.43
13.38
0.91
0.43

185.08 !
48.71 !

74.03
19.48

Species
by num-
ber of
trees.

Species

by
volume.

41.37
23.90
14.96
19.06
0.25
0.46

Per cent.
33.06
27.55
19.49
18.08
1.23
0.58

NUMBER OF TREES AND VOLUME BY DIAMETER CLASSES IN CENTIMETERS,

Species.

Tangal _..
Bakauan .
Busain ...
Langarai .
Pagatpat -
Tabigi

Total .

Diameter class in centimeters.
20.

Trees.

549

211

243

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.

19.28
6.49
2.85

10.80

3 j 0.24
1,098 I 39.66

15.

Trees.

212
121

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.

32.05

15.19

9.08

17.45

0.31
74.08

Trees.

72
81
109
30
2
1

295

Vol-
ume.

11.46

15.88

5.21

.35

0.13

42.89

Trees.

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.

60
26

15.10
5.40

2 I 0.40
88 20.90

Species.

Tangal

Bakauan ...

Busain

Langarai ...
Pagatpat ...
Tabigi

Total .

Diameter class in centimeters.

30.

Trees.

Volume.

1.19

2.87

4.76

Trees.

Volume.

40.

Trees.

1.56 i

Volume.

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

In Table IV tangal (Ceriops roxburghiana) is the most num-
erous species and is represented by the largest volume. Ba-
kauan (Rhizophora spp.) ranks next to tangal, while busain
(Bruguiera conjugata) and langarai (Bruguiera parviflora) are
third and fourth, respectively. The other two species present
occur in small quantities. In this table the largest percentage
of volume is the 15-centimeter diameter class. In both Tables III
and IV the number of individuals is greatest in the smallest dia-
meter class and decreases in the larger classes.

Table V. — Stand of firewood 10 centimeters and over in diameter on 3
hectares, between Basiad and Angas Rivers, Calauag, Tayabas, Lu-
zon. Survey applicable to 720 hectares.

[Data from report by Ranger Vicente Castillo.]

Species.

Bakauan

Langarai

Busain

Pagatpat

Tangal

Tabigi

Total

Stand per hectare

NUMBER OF TREES AND VOLUME BY DIAMETER CLASSES IN CENTIMETERS.

Species.

Diameter class in centimeters.

15.

Bakauan ; 121

Langarai ■ 485

Busain 104

Pagatpat 1

Tangal 1 54

Tabigi ! 3

Total I 768

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.
4.90
30.64
5.48
0.06
1.79
0.09

Trees.

176

281

42.96

570

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.

19.93

42.53

6.97

1.50

2.10

20.

Trees.

73.03

206
172
32
26

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.

47.69

46.18

5.96

6.17

0.61

Trees.

209
59

Vol-
ume.

cu. m.

72.73

27.91

6.81
10.14

0.60

88 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table V. — Stand of firewood 10 centimeters and over, etc. — Continued.

Diameter

class

in centimeters.

Species.

i 30

35. !

40.

Trees. !

Volume.

Trees.

Volume. , Trees.

Volume.

Bakauan ...
Langarai ...

146

5 |
5

cu. m.
47.06
3.26

2.28

2.77

cu. m. ,
38.59 ;

cu. m.
28.10

Busain

1.35 !

0.96 ,

6 3.78

Pagatpat..
Tangal

4 i

8 ! 8.69

Tabigi '. ' ! i : i

Total

] 160 |

! 1

55.37 j

40.90 ,

40.57

In Table V, bakauan {Rhizophora spp.) is represented by the
largest volume, but Bruguiera parvi flora, by the greatest number
of individuals. Langarai {Bruguiera parviflora) ranks next to
bakauan {Rhizophora spp.) in volume, these two trees composing
86 per cent of the total volume. In this table the greatest
percentage of volume is contained in the 20- and 25-centimeter
diameter classes.

Forester Rafael Medina has made a valuation survey of 3
hectares between Catubig and Laoang in the mangrove swamps
of Samar, to show how much merchantable saw timber over 40
centimeters in diameter can be taken from the mangrove swamps
in that region. The results are given in Table VI. There was

Table VI. — Stand of timber 40 cetimeters and over in diameter on 3
hectares between Catubig and Laoang, Samar.

[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.]

Species.

Api-api

Bakauan

Busain

Tabigi

Tangal

Total .
Per hectare.

Per cent
of each
species
by num-
ber of
trees.

49.04 ;
23.69
16.61 j

8.^;7 , :

1.99 ;

Trees. ' Logs.

Aver- :
age
num-
ber of
logs
per
I tree.

Volume.

100

741 |
358
251
131 !
30 :

1,511 j

504 !

741

358 j

251 I

131 l

30 !

1,511 I.

504 .

1 j

A
i

cu. m. |

bd.ft.

CU. 7)1.

31.28

7, 820.

0.042

17. 19

4, 297. 5

0.048

9.33

2, 332. 5

0.037

8.20

2, 050.

0. 063

1.10

275.

0.037

Average volume |
per tree. j

bd.ft.
10.5
12.0
9. 3
15. 6
9.2

67.10 1 16, 775.0 | ao. 045 | «11.
22.37 ! 5,592.0 \ ;

* Average.

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

an average volume of 22.37 cubic meters in trees more than 40
centimeters in diameter. No trees produce on the average more
than one log 5 meters in length. The most numerous tree was
api-api (Avicennia), and the next was bakauan (Rhizophora
spp.). The third most numerous species was busain (Bruguiera
sexangula). The wood of api-api {Avicennia) is of compar-
atively little value, but is extensively used as firewood. That of
the other species is very valuable.

Forester Medina has also made valuation surveys of other
stands in Samar. The results are given in Tables VII to XI.
In all of these tables, bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) is the most
numerous tree. The second most numerous is api-api (Avi-
cennia). This species, however, is very much less numerous
than bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) and is represented by a much
smaller volume. In Table VIII, langarai (Bruguiera parviflora)
ranks next to bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) and api-api (Avi-
cennia) third. The average volume per hectare in the different
areas varies from 13.77 to 120.87 cubic meters. These tables
represent swamps which have been used to some extent for
the collection of firewood.

Table VII. — Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between
Pinamacdan River and Matnog Creek, Samar. Valuation survey taken
on 6.35 hectares. Applicable to 2,710 hectares.

[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.]

Bakauan

Api-api

Pagatpat

Pototan

Langarai

Tabigi

Tabau

Tangal

Total
Stand per hectare

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table VII. — Sta7id of firewood 5 centimeters and over, etc. — Continued.

NUMBER OF LOGS BY DIAMETER CLASSES.

Species.

Bakauan..
Api-api ...
Pagatpat .
Pototan _.
Langarai .
Tabigi ....
Tabau ....
TangaL —

Total

Diameter class in
centimeters.

5-10.

10-20.

20-30.

1.152

1,611

325

199

188

146

103
43

1,662

2,022

400

Table VIII. — Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between
Motiong Creek and Pinamacdan River, Samar. Valuation survey taken
on 9.05 hectares. Applicable to 3,110 hectares.

[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.]

Species.

Bakauan

Langarai

Api-api

Pagatpat

Tabigi

Dungon-late.

Pototan

Tabau

Per cent
of each
species
by num-
ber of
trees.

Total

Stand per hectare .

50.93
27.19
10.38
4.23
6.47
0.49
0.22
0.09

100.00

Trees.

Logs.

2,129
813
331

507
39
17

11,879

7,086

2,066

926

992

105

Average
number
of logs

per tree.

Volume.

7,831

865 !

23, 108
2,553

3.0
3.3
2.5
2.8
1.9
2.7
2.2
2.3

597.31

350. 29

64.97

45.72

27.90

6.15

1.35

0.22

1,093.91
120. 87

Cords.

238. 92

140. 12

25.99

18.29

11.16

2.46

0.54

0.09

437.57
48.85

NUMBER OF LOGS BY DIAMETER CLASSES.

Species.

Bakauan

Langarai

Api-api

Pagatpat —

Tabigi

Dungon-late

Pototan

Tabau

Total .

Diameter class in centimeters.

10-20. 20-30. 30-40. 40-50.

3,817

2,347

1,080 |

236

491

8,023

3,155

1,800

545

258

332

6,118

2,347
1,357
303
116
147
27
10

2,560

1,582

138

316

4,307 4,660

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table IX. — Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between
Dapdap River and Motiong Creek, Samar. Valuation survey taken on
1U hectares. Applicable to 1,080 hectares.

[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.]

Species.

Bakauan

Api-api-_ ...

Pagatpat

Langarai

Dungon-late.

Pototan

Tabigi

Tangal

Per cent
of each
species
by num-
ber of
! trees.

56.84 :

25.02
6.74
3.49
3.01
2.09
2.32
0.49

Trees.

4,099
1,804
486
252
217
151 ;
167
35

Logs.

Average

number

of logs

per tree.

Volume.

9,259
4,250
1,052

547 |

346

323

2.3
2.4
2.2
3.2
2.5
2.3
1.9
1.4

cu. m.
472. 59
144. 34
53.23
39.74
29.83
20.30
18.94
2.15

Cords.
189.04
57.74
21.29
15.90
11.93
8.12
7.58
0.86

Total

I Stand per hectare.

100.00 !

7,211 j
515 \

16,634

1,188

781.12 |
55.79 !

312. 46
22.32

NUMBER OF LOGS BY DIAMETER CLASSES.

Species.

Diameter class in centimeters.
10-20. I 20-30. 30-40. I 40-50.

Bakauan , 2,721

Api-api . ! 2,388

Pagatpat ! 393

Langarai 298

Dungon-late ' 169

Pototan ! 95

Tabigi I 121

Tangal j 28

Total : 6,213

1,858

936

191

227

148

3,490

1,893 ;

2,787

465 '

461

241

227

165

118

139

85 |

61 ;

5 j

3,006 i

3, 925

STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table X. — Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between
Carayman or Bong on River and Dapdap River, Samar. Valuation
survey taken on 11.5 hectares. Applicable to 4,360 hectares.

[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.)

Species.

Bakauan

Api-api

Langarai

Tabigi

Dungon-late .

Pagatpat

Pototan

Per cent |
of each j

species I
by j

number j
of trees. !

63.09 !

15. 15 :
8.10 !
5.26 ;
3.67
3.67 ,
1.06 ;

Trees.

2,748
660
353
229
160
160 |
46

Logs.

Average j
number i
of logs j
per tree.

Volume.

6,202 j
1,334 !
1,070

505 ;

364 !

401 :

147

2.2

2.0 i
3.0 I

2.2 j

2.3 j
2.5 i
3.2 !

335. 47
74.35
67.77
60. 1-4
26.49
26.41
11.82

Cor
134.

29,

27.

24.

10.

10.
4.

Total

Standard per hectare..

100.00 !

4,356 i

379 i

10,023 !_

872 L

602.45
52.38 !

240.
20.

NUMBER OF LOGS BY DIAMETER CLASSES.

Diameter class in centimeters.

Species.

Bakauan

Api-api

Langarai

Tabigi

Dungon-late..

Pagatpat

Pototan

10-20.

2,058
401
136
57
75
89
14

1,445
315
365
135

Total | 2,830 j

18
2,437 '

1,155
260
296
129
70
91
60

2,061

1,544
358
273
135
149
132
55

50-60.

60-70. 70-80. 80-90.

7 7 26

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table XI. — Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between
Barrio Pena and Carayman or Bongon River, Samar. Valuation
survey taken on 1 hectare. Applicable to 300 hectares.

[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.]

•

Species,

Per cent
of each
species

by
number
of trees.

55.77

i
Trees. I Logs.

!
i

....

Average
number
of logs

per tree.

2.3
1.6
2.9
2.2

2.0

Volume.

Bakauan

266

619
195
129

88
18

cu. m.
33.83
11.96
6.76
6.31
1.32

Cords.
13.53
4.78
2.70
2.52
0.53

Api-api ._

24.74 118

Pagatpat

9.22

8 38

44
40

Tabigi .

Dungon-late __ .

1.89 9

Total ._

100. 00

477

1,049

60.18

24.06

NUMBER OF LOGS BY DIAMETER CLASSES.

Diameter class

in centimeters.

Species.

10-20.

20-30.

150
60
43
15
2

30-40.

40-50.

Bakauan

198
53
39
15
4

96
26
15
27
6

175
56
32
31
6

Api-api .

Pagatpat .__ _

Tabigi ',.. . _ .

Dungon-late __.

Total

309

270

170

300

SWAMP CULTIVATION IN MANILA BAY

Cultivated swamps are found in the whole region around
the upper part of Manila Bay, from Malabon on the east to
Balanga on the west side; here, the virgin mangle has long
since disappeared. The extent of the area covered by this
cultivation has not been determined; but, in places, it extends
20 or more kilometers inland from the bay. Extensive reports
on the cultivation of bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) in the above
region have been made by Dr. F. W. Foxworthy and Ranger
De Mesa. The following information is taken from their
reports :

Nipa and bakauan are planted extensively in solid stands,
but there is little planting of other swamp species.

Hundreds, and may be thousands, of hectares are planted to
bakauan, which is grown for firewood, and sold principally in
the Manila market, this wood being preferred to almost all
others for fuel. The Manila supply is inadequate, as is indicated
by the remarkably complete utilization of the swamps in the
vicinity, and by the use of other and inferior species.

CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA. 95

No records seem to exist as to how, when, and where bakauan
was first cultivated, but it is safe to say that the present plant-
ing methods have been in use for at least three generations.
An evident reason for the cultivation is the large agricultural
population on the level lands of Pampanga Province and the
accessibility of the Manila market.

In the municipalities of Macabebe, Guagua, Lubao, Sexmoan,
and Orani there are a number of barrios along the rivers which
have a population that divides its labor among the fishing,
bakauan, and nipa industries.

PLANTING AND CULTIVATION

The land chosen for planting bakauan is brackish or salt
swamp, at or near the edge of a river in places which are affected
by the tide. Nipa and bakauan are often planted in the same
kind of mud. Very soft muddy soil is said to be the best for
bakauan; and on such soil it makes its most rapid growth.
On comparatively firm mud, it grows far more slowly, some-
times requiring much more than twice as long to produce a
crop as when grown on the very soft mud. Freshly deposited
soft mud at the edge of a stream, even though the strip may
be no more than 2 meters in width, is eagerly appropriated
for new planting.

The unit of area used in the mangrove cultivation is the
"luang," which is 279.56 square meters. There are thus 35.77
luangs in 1 hectare.

If the ground which is to be planted has not been in cultivation
for some time, it is covered with a dense tangle of low shrubs
and vines. These are, for the most part, the low shrubby
diliuariu (Acanthus ilicifolius L.) ; the spiny, woody vine known
as sapinit [Caesalpinia nuga (L.) Ait.] ; and several small, low-
growing vines.

The land must be thoroughly cleared before planting. This
is a difficult task and usually costs 2 pesos per luang, some-
times 2.50 pesos per luang. This would mean the work of two
men for about two days. The clearing consists in cutting off
the brush, pulling up or digging up the roots, if this is possible,
and filling and leveling crab holes.

Clearing is reduced to a minimum by promptly replanting
cut-over areas. After bakauan has been harvested, the ground
may be left idle for from four months to a year, or until the
bark on the roots is evidently rotten. The area can then be
replanted without any new clearing being necessary.

The seedlings are frequently gathered from special seed trees
which are left for this purpose. Often low-growing or dwarf

96 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

trees near the edge of the stream are selected for the production
of seed, as it is easier to collect seed from small than from large
trees. This results in the use of rather small seedlings.

These are gathered at a cost of from 2 to 3 pesos per
thousand. The higher price is given for prompt delivery and
when cash payment is made. The smaller sum is paid when
the money is given as an advance, several months before the
performance of the work. The advance-payment method seems
to be the one in commoner use. In some places, bakauan-lalaki
seedlings are paid for at the rate of 2 or 3 pesos per thousand
and bakauan-babae at 3 or 4 pesos per thousand. The bakauan-
lalaki seedlings are smaller and more numerous and are, there-
fore, easier to collect than those of bakauan-babae. If the
seedlings were placed 100 centimeters apart, 10,000 would be
required to plant a hectare. If they were only 20 centimeters
apart, 250,000 would be required.

After gathering, the seedlings are placed in a shady place and
allowed to wilt for about two weeks. This is said to render
them resistant to the attacks of crabs and other marine animals,
which would eat them if they were planted perfectly fresh.

The principal planting season appears to be from May to
August. May seems to be considered a less desirable month
for planting than are the others, as the seedlings are said to
be rather small during that month.

In planting, the seedlings are simply shoved a short distance
into the mud, so that they will stand erect. They are spaced
40 to 100 centimeters apart. In some of the places visited,
the seedlings were as close together as 20 centimeters. The
most usual spacing seemed to be from 40 to 60 centimeters.

The planting may be done very rapidly, as a man can go
almost at a run and plant two luangs or more per day. From
50 centavos to 1.20 pesos are paid for the planting of 10,000
plants.

The young plants are killed, if they are submerged for as
long as three days; or if there is a flood while the plants are
young, the excess of fresh water will kill many.

Young plantations at the edge of the river are protected from
damage from floating objects by a fence of branches stuck in
the mud or by a planted hedge of pagatpat (Sonneratia spp.).
Sometimes a line of older bakauan trees is left to protect a
new plantation. Bakauan-babae is usually planted along the
edge next the stream, while bakauan-lalaki makes up most of
the stand back of the bakauan-babae.

After the first year, it is customary to replant any blank
spaces left by the death or destruction of any of the stand.

CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA. 97

Cultivation consists principally in keeping the plantation clear
of vines. It is said that it is sometimes necessary to cut out
the vines each year. Usually there is very little of this to do;
and, in many cases, there is no occasion to do it at all. The
cost of this weeding is hard to estimate, because the man who
does the work usually devotes only a part of his time to it.
A man is able to do all the weeding for a large plantation, guard
the plantation from thieves, and still have a considerable part
of his time to spend in fishing. It seems that the cost of weed-
ing is never a large item.

In some cases, where it is considered that the plants are too
far apart, the terminal bud is split during the second year.
This is said to cause the plants to form two or more trunks, thus
filling up the space more completely.

During the first year, a plant produces from two to four pairs
of leaves and does not grow much more than half a meter in
height. At this time rather fleshy underground roots are formed
and the whole plant is more herbaceous than woody in texture.
In the second year the plant begins to branch at the top and
to send out prop roots, while the stem become partly woody.
During the third year the plant becomes stout and woody, while
in succeeding years it makes height growth and thickens more
symmetrically.

With the very close planting which is the rule, the plants
grow very slender and straight. The dense shade produced,
in time, causes self-pruning. Self-pruning is regarded as in-
dicating that the bakauan is ready for cutting. Self-pruning
takes place seven to twelve or more years after planting, accord-
ing to the character of the soil.

Only small firewood sizes are grown. Material large enough
for rajas x is very rarely seen.

Hacenderos all agree that the individual tree will grow more
rapidly and will reach a larger size, if it is given more room.
They feel confident, however, that they would lose money if
they planted at a greater interval; as they would have fewer
trees. However, planting at an interval at least twice as wide
as is commonly used would probably be a profitable experiment.

Bakauan-babae is said to grow more rapidly than does baka-

1 Rajas are sticks of firewoods split from sections of trunks 8 to 15
centimeters in diameter and 80 to 100 centimeters in length. Trunks
10 centimeters in diameter are split into four pieces; those 20 centimeters
in diameter into six or eight pieces. Rajitas are smaller and are split
from sections of trunks, branches, and roots ranging from 1 to 3 centi-
meters in diameter and from 60 to 70 centimeters in length. Three centi-
meter sticks are split into two or four pieces.

161791 7

98 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

uan-lalaki; but it is much more inclined to be crooked, and its
wood is not so good.

Bakauan-babae begins to flower in its third year, but is said
not to bear fertile fruit till the fourth or fifth year.

In going hurriedly through the swamp in a boat, one gets the
impression that more bakauan-babae is planted than bakauan-
lalaki. This is because the bakauan-babae is planted at the
edge of the stream.

CUTTING

Different practices in cutting are followed in different local-
ities. In the Sexmoan and Guagua neighborhoods, the cutting
is often done by contract. The owner gives the contractor one-
half of the cut and furnishes the bancas for transportation.
In such cases, the woody prop roots do not enter into the
contract and are the property of the cutter, if he chooses to
take them. It is said, however, that the owner can make a
larger profit by employing his own men to do the cutting.

The firewood is regularly of three grades. The first grade
is about 60 centimeters in length and 2 or 3 centimeters in
thickness. It is split from the pieces of larger diameter and,
locally, has a value of 2 pesos per thousand. The second grade
is of the same length as the first, but is split from pieces of
smaller diameter. It sells locally for 1 peso per thousand. The
third grade is made of pieces which are shorter and of still
smaller diameter. This grade sells locally for 2 pesos per 10,000
pieces.

Wood cutters, who cut the trees in the swamp, transport the
poles to the wood yard, and split them there, are paid 0.625
peso per 1,000 pieces of the first grade, 0.625 peso per 2,000 of
the second grade, and 0.625 peso per 10,000 pieces of the third
grade. Consequently the cutter does not know just how much
he will receive until the pieces have been split. The cutter
takes the poles from the swamp in a banca and delivers them
at his own or some other wood yard, where they are cut into
firewood size. This splitting into firewood is often done by
women and children. Only the straight pieces are cut up for
firewood. The splitting is either done with a special, heavy-
bladed, long-handled bolo, which is used with a chopping move-
ment like an ax; or with a special, short-bladed, narrow ax.

The small air-roots of the bakauan are sometimes sold after
being split once. They then bring about 50 centavos per thou-
sand. They are not regularly classified, and often are not cut
but are left to decay in the swamp.

The straight and slender tops of the bakauan, which are
about 4 meters long, a centimeter in diameter at the top, and

CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA.

2 or 3 centimeters in diameter at the base, are often sold to
planters of ikmo (betel pepper) at 12 pesos per 100.

The very rough pieces, particularly those that occur where
the prop roots are joined to the trunk, are used in making
charcoal. The bark is also occasionally used for cooking, espe-
cially in the roasting of corn. This use does not seem to be
general enough to have fixed a market price.

Ranger De Mesa has made a careful count of the number of the
trees on several plots in bakauan plantations. The results are
given in Tables XII to XIV. These tables show the number of
trees of different lengths and diameters and the volume according
to the length and diameter of the trees, also, the total number of
trees and the total volume, and the percentage of trees and volume
in the different length classes. In the lower portion of the table
is shown the number, grades, and volume of the rajitas obtained
by cutting and splitting the trees.

Table XII. — Measurements of planted bakauan-lalaki near Orani, Bataan,
at age of 7 years on 0.1 hectare (50 by 20 meters).

[Data from report by Ranger De Mesa.]

Diameter class

in cm.

Length class in meters.

Total.

[Trees

454
0.285

300
0.283

120

0.254

0.188

189
0.238

187
0.529

165

0.829

0.055

104
0.163

309
1.092

376
2.362

301
2.955

1,047
0.969

616
1.875

591
3.379

308
3.010

(Volume in cu. m

jTrees

3 _.

JTrees

1 Trees

Total

[Trees __

454
0.285
17.72
3.09

470
0.725
18.35

7.85

548

1.651

21.39

17.88

1,090
6.572
42.54
71.18

2,562

9.233

100.00

(Volume in cu. m

[Trees

Percentage of stand by

(Volume in cu. m

STACKED RAJITAS.

rade of rajitas.

Pieces.

Volume.

12, 650
22, 195

500

cu. m.
7.80
6.40
0.22
1.50

35,345

15.92

100

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table XIII. — Measurements of planted bakauans, near Orani, Bataan, at
age of 8 years on 0.1 hectare (50 by 20 meters).

[Data from report by Ranger De Mesa.]

Species.

Diameter class in cm.

3.5

Length class in meters.

I 4 ! 5 6

4
5
6

Do -

Total

Percentage of stand by_

331 , 278 | 177 |
0.364 j 0.349 | 0.278 \
' 104 i 234

0.294 | 0.837
i 161

[Trees

IVolume in cu. m._
JTrees

[Volume in cu. m._
|Trees

[Volume in cu. m J \ 1.012

(Trees j j ! 19

(Volume in cu. m._! ' | 1.865

ITrees j j 72

Ivolume in cu. mJ I I 1.018 j 0.271

[Trees ; '' 4 , 16

1 Volume in cu.m.- j 0.064 ! j 0.387

0.254

426

3.212

292

3.440

I Trees -

Volume in cu. m..; ' ; 1. 1

Total.

786

0.991

398

1.385

587

4.224

311

5.305

1.289

0. 451

1.086

|Trees ' 331 ! 386 i 663 I

[Volume in cu. m._ 0.364 0.707- 5.01

826
8.65

2,206
14. 731

ITrees 15.01 17.50 i 30.05 i 57.44 I 100.00

IVolume in cu. m._ 2.48
STACKED RAJITAS.
Grade of rajitas.

4.79

34.01 58.72 j 100.00

First

Second

Third

Stumps .

Total .

Pieces, i Volume.

cu. m.

13,400 8.011

23, 400 6. 425

1, 800 0. 504

3.42

38,600 ' 18.36

CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA.

101

TABLE XIV. — Measurements of planted bakauan-lalaki near Sexmoan, Pam-
panga, at age of 7 years on 0.1 heetare (50 by 20 meters).

[Data from report by Ranger De Mesa.]

Length class in meters.

Diameter class in cm.

2 jfTrees

i [Volume in cu. m._

214
0.201 !

2(K)
0.424 i

Total _

Percentage of stand by .

[Trees

(Volume in cu. m

[Trees !

I Volume in cu. m

(Trees j

I Volume in cu. m

(Trees i 414

1 Volume in cu. m ! 0.625

(Trees j 18.29

I Volume in cu. m I 6.76

280
0.352
246
0. 696
240
1.206
30
0.236
976
2.49
35.16
26.94

| 72

0. 113

262

0.926

560

3.519

16()

1.571

1, 054

6.129

46.55

66. 30

Total.

566
0.666

708
2. 046

800
4.725

190

1.807

2,264

9.244

100. 00

100.00

STACKED RAJITAS.

Grade of rajitas.

Pieces.

5,560
17,600

Volume.

cu. m.
4.774
7.825
5.367

First

Second . _ _.

Stumps.- _ . - -- - -

Total

23, 160

17. 966

The trees measured in Table XII were cut by six laborers,
each working three hours a day for four days; those in Table
XIII by four laborers working two to three hours a day for
four days; and those in Table XIV by four laborers working
half a day for three days.

The results in Tables XII and XIV were obtained from planta-
tions 7 years old. The total volume in each on 0.1 hectare was
9.2 cubic meters. The trees recorded in Table XIII were 8
years old and showed a volume of 14.7 cubic meters on 0.1
hectare. The volume of stacked rajitas was in every case much
greater than the volume obtained by measuring the trees. This
difference was caused by the space occupied by air spaces.

MARKETING OF BAKAUAN

Manila is the market place for most of the bakauan grown
around Manila Bay, and transportation is naturally by water.
The firewood is loaded into cascoes which are towed to Manila
by launches. The charcoal is loaded on the regular steamer and
pays a freight charge of 5 centavos per sack.

102 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

The first-grade rajitas sell in Manila and Malabon at from 3
to 4 pesos per 1,000 pieces; the second grade, from 3 to 4 pesos
per 2,000 pieces; the third grade, from 3 to 4 pesos per 10,000
pieces; and the fourth grade, from 3 to 3.50 pesos per 4 cubic
meters.

In Table XV are given the figures on cost of transporation from
Bataan to Manila.

Table XV. — Cost of transportation of firewood from Bataan to Manila.

[Data from report by Ranger De Mesa.]

Pesos.

Second-class casco with a load of 70,000 first-grade rajitas (7 to 14

days' trip) — a 1.50

Crew of 5 men at 3 pesos each and 1 pilot at 6 pesos (1 trip) 21.00

Subsistence of crew while on trip 8.00

First-class casco with a load of 100,000 first-grade rajitas (7 to 14

days' trip) a 2.00

Crew of 6 men at 4 pesos each and 1 pilot at 8 pesos (1 trip) 32.00

Subsistence of crew while on trip 10.00

From the figures given in Tables XII and XIII, we have made
rough estimates of the total cost, selling price, and profits derived
from 1 hectare of a bakauan plantation. These figures are
given in Tables XVI and XVII.

Table XVI. — Cost and sale value in Manila of the crop of bakauan on
1 hectare, based on figures in Table XII for crop 7 years old.

PLANTING COST.

Pesos.

Clearing at 2 pesos per luang 72.00

Seedlings, 25,620 at 2 pesos per 1,000 51.00

Planting at 0.75 peso per 1,000 19.00

Compound interest on planting cost for seven years at 5 per

cent 58.00

Total planting cost 200.00

HARVESTING AND SELLING COST.

Cutting and splitting 126,500 first-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso

per 1,000 '79.00

Cutting and splitting 221,900 second-grade r&jitas at 0.625 peso

per 2,000 69.00

Transportation 126,500 first-grade rajitas at 62 pesos per

100,000 78.00

Transportation 221,900 second-grade rajitas at 40 pesos per

100,000 89.00

Total harvesting and selling cost 315.00

Total cost 515.00

81 Daily.

CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA. 103

SELLING PRICE.

126,500 first-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 1,000 443.00

221,900 second-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 2,000 388.00

Total selling price 831.00

Total cost 515.00

Total profit 316.00

Profit for one year 45.00

Profit per year based on cost of original planting (per cent) 32

Table XVII. — Cost and sale value in Manila of the crop of bakauan on 1
hectare, based on figures in Table XIII for crop 8 years old.

PLANTING COST.

Pesos.

Clearing at 2 pesos per luang 72.00

Seedlings, 22,060 at 2 pesos per 1,000 44.00

Planting at 0.75 peso per 1,000 17.00

Compound interest on planting cost for 8 years at 5 per cent.. 64.00

Total planting cost 197.00

HARVESTING AND SELLING COST.

Cutting and splitting 134,000 first-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso

per 1,000 84.00

Cutting and splitting 234,000 second-grade rajitas at 0.625

peso per 2,000 73.00

Cutting and splitting 18,000 third-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso

per 10,000.... 1.00

Transportation of 134,000 first-grade rajitas at 62 pesos per

100,000 83.00

Transportation of 252,000 second- and third-grade rajitas at 40

pesos per 100,000 101.00

Total harvesting and selling cost 342.00

Total cost 539.00

SELLING PRICE.

134,000 first-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 1,000. 469.00

234,000 second-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 2,000 409.00

18,000 third-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 10,000 6.00

Total selling price 884.00

Total cost 539.00

Total profit 345.00

Profit per year 43.00

Profit per year based on original planting cost (per cent) 32

The value of the land is not taken into consideration, because
the area in cultivation is really a part of the shore line, or perhaps
of the sea, and properly belongs to the Government. No account
is taken of the cost of supervision, as it is very difficult to arrive
at an estimate of this. However, a bakauan plantation takes

104 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

but little supervision and so this item is probably very small.
From the figures given in Tables XVI and XVII, it would appear
that raising bakauan should be profitable. It would appear
further that it is much more profitable to market the crop in
Manila than where it is grown. This is brought out in Table
XVIII, in which the cost and selling price in Bataan are shown.

Table XVIII. — Cost and selling prices in Bataan of the crop of bakauan
on 1 hectare, based on figures in Table XIII for crop 8 years old.

SELLING PRICE.

Pesos.

134,000 first-grade rajitas at 2 pesos per 1,000 268.00

234,000 second-grade rajitas at 1 peso per 1,000 234.00

18,000 third-grade rajitas at 2 pesos per 10,000 4.00

Stumps, 34.2 cubic meters at 2 pesos' per cubic meter 17.00

Total selling price 523.00

Cost of clearing, seedlings, planting, and harvesting, with interest

on planting 355.00

Total profit 168.00

Profit per year 21.00

Profit per year based on original planting cost (per cent) 16

If sold in Manila, it will be seen that the profit per year, based
on the planting cost, is 32 per cent plus 5 per cent compound
interest, which is calculated in the tables as a part of the cost.
When the wood is sold where grown, the calculated profit per
year is 16 per cent plus the interest on the planting cost.
About half of the original planting cost as calculated is due
to clearing, which is frequently not necessary, perhaps never so
for the second crop, if the planting is done at the right time.
Where clearing is unnecessary, the percentage of profit would
be much greater than that calculated.

When bakauan is planted on bare ground in shallow water,
the roots by holding sand or mud on the area have a tendency
to raise the level of the ground. When the land has been raised
to about the level of high tide, the bakauan is frequently cut
for firewood and the area made into fish ponds by the construction
of dikes. The water in these ponds is usually brackish. In the
Philippines, there is a considerable industry in the raising of the
fish Chanos chanos Forskal, locally known as bangos, in such
ponds. As the raising of fish is a very profitable business, old
bakauan plantations are frequently converted into fish ponds.
In many places the growing of a crop of bakauan and the sub-
sequent use of the land for fish ponds should be an exceptionally
profitable investment. There are large areas in Manila Bay
where this could be undertaken.

FIREWOOD.

105

MANGROVE-SWAMP FIREWOOD

The demand for fuel in the Philippines, excepting in the case
of transportation companies and manufacturing plants, is met
almost entirely by the use of firewood, as up to the present time
comparatively little coal has been mined in the Archipelago and
most of the supply comes from Japan. The coal industry in the
Philippines is being developed, and 3,200 tons were mined in
1917. f The demand for fuel in a tropical country, such as the
Philippines, is not nearly so great as in a temperate region;
nevertheless, there is a large demand for domestic purposes, such
as cooking, washing, etc., and for the smaller industries.

The most highly prized firewood is furnished by various
species of mangrove-swamp trees. However, the available, ac-
cessible supply of these is not great enough to satisfy the demand
and dry-land species have to be substituted. The amount of
firewood of both classes on which taxes were paid in the Archi-
pelago from 1914 to 1918, inclusive, is given in Table XIX.

Table XIX. — Amount of firewood on which taxes were paid in the Philip-
pine Islands from 191U to 1918.

From this table, it will be seen that during each successive year
the amount of mangrove-swamp wood used has been greatly
increased and that there has been a corresponding increase in
the dry-land species ; and further, that in every case, the amount
of the dry -land species was each year more than twice as great
as that of mangrove species. The figures in Table XIX show
that the firewood business in the Philippine Islands is one of
considerable proportions.

An extensive study of mangrove-swamp woods has been made
by Cox.* In Table XX are given the results of analyses and

t Cox, Alvin J., Annual Report of the Director, Bureau of Science, for
1918.

* Cox, Alvin J., Philippine firewood, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec.

A, Vol. 6 (1911),' page 1.

* Cox, Alvin J., Philippine fuels, Bureau of Science Press Bulletin
No. 86.

106

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

calorific determinations made by him on air-dried wood without
bark. In this table the dried wood is taken as the basis on which
to compute the percentages of moisture and ash. From the table

Table XX. — Analyses and calorific determinations of air-dried wood

without bark.

[The numbers and common names are those given by Cox in the original table. The
scientific names have been inserted by Mr. E. K. Schneider, wood expert of the Bureau
of Forestry, after a recent examination of specimens of the wood used by Cox.]

No.

Common and scientific names.

Pototan (Bruguiera conjugata)

Bacauan (Rhizophora mucro-

nata) .
Bacao (Bruguiera sp.)

Bacauan-tubig (Bruguiera sp.)
Catutan (Bruguiera sp.)

Tabigue (Xylocarpus moluc-

censis) .
Bacauan (Bruguiera sp.)

Tambu-tambu (Xylocarpus

moluccensis) .
Pagatpat (Sonneratia caseo-

laris) .
Bacauan (Rhizophora cande-

laria) .
Tangal (Ceriops tagal)

Pototan (Bruguiera conjugata)

17 ! Lenggadi (Bruguiera parvi-
j flora) .

Moisture.

Ash.

Main cal-
ories. 3

Available
heating
value.

!
Heating ;
value of
combus-
tible mat-
ter, wood
— (water
+ ash) in
main cal-
ories. a

Available
heat'ng
value of
combus-
tible mat-
ter, wood
— (water
-f ash).

!
Per cent. \

Per cent

Calories.

| 13.01 j

1.46

4,180

3,833

4,798

4,480

I 13.26 <

1.44

4,191

3,829

4,793

4,475

| 11.22

2.23

4,118

3,772

4,689

4,365

t 11.37

2.29

4,107

3,746

4,682

4,358

| 11. 03

1.81

4,159

3,781

4,699

4,340

1 10. 94

1.74
5.75

| 13.21

3,753

3.366

(b)

5.57

( 13. 79

1.28

4,142

3,705

4,787

4,368

1 13. 77

1.29

13.93

2.80

4,005

3,634

4,694

4,345

| 13. 77

2.05

4,066

3,764

4,723

4,456

1 13. 39

2.12

( 12. 99

2.72

4,162

3,873

4,833

4,578

I 12. 99

| 14. 27

2.71
2.62

4,116

3,841

4,831

4,596

I 14. 27
J 10. 71

2.65
2.41

4,136

3,721

4,689

4,284

2.26

4,154

3,760

4,720

4,328

| 11.41

1.60

4,292

3,924

4,747

4,399

4,293

3,906

4,747

4,378

) 12.26

1.55

4,286

3,895

4,840

4,466

4,227

3,855

4,773

4,421

11.97

1.65

4,072

3,716

4,629

4,296

a In the usual determination of the calorific value of a fuel in a calorimeter the
products are cooled to the ordinary temperature and the result is therefore higher than
can ever be realized in ideal practice, where the resulting gases always leave the flues at a
temperature above 100°. Since the object of the determination of the calorific value of
a fuel is to show its technical worth, I always have calculated the results on Philippine
fuels on the assumption that the moisture present and the water formed during the com-
bustion remain as steam at 100°, i. e., I have made a water correction by subtracting 6 calories
for each per cent of water. Some mechanical engineers do not make this correction, and
therefore obtain a result from 3 to 10 per cent too high, and in order that my results may be
comparable in all cases I have decided to give also the uncorrected result under the caption
"Main calories."

h On account of the very high ash content and the possibility of error in its determina-
tion (cf. p. 10), this sample has little comparative value and I have therefore not included
the heating value of the combustible matter in the average. The calculated results for the
combustible matters wood — ■ (water -+- ash), in main calories and available calories are
4,482 and 4,123, respectively.

FIREWOOD.

107

Fig. 1. Piled firewood cut mainly from tangal and bakauan.

Fig. 2. Lorcha load of rajitas.
PLATE XLIII.

108

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

it would appear that the moisture content is fairly constant for
the different species. Cox found that in the Philipines, where
the humidity is high and fairly constant, the variations in the
moisture content are much less than where the climate is hot
or cold, moist or dry, according to the season. He concluded that
the moisture content of wood seldom falls below 12.5 or 13 per
cent of the dry weight, and that these figures may be taken
as good averages for thoroughly seasoned firewoods. The ash
content varies considerably in different species. Cox says of
the ash content that this is of comparatively little importance
from the standpoint of firewood because the amount of ash is
usually small. The calorific value based on the dry weight of
the various species is fairly constant, as might be expected
from the fact that the part of the wood left after deducting
the water and ash would be almost the same in all cases.
Table XXI. — Specific gravities of Philippine firetvoods.

[The numbers and common names are those given by Cox in the original table. The
scientific names have been inserted by Mr. E. E. Schneider, wood expert of the Bureau
of Forestry, after a recent examination of specimens of the wood used by Cox.]

No.

Common name.

Scientific name.

Moisture.

Ash.

Specific
gravity.

Per cent.

Pototan

1 13. 58
1 13. 51

1.46
1.44

0. 7671
0. 7441

4
5
6

Bacauan

Bacao

Bacauan-tubig

Rhizophora mucronata

Bruquiera sp_ ...

) bi2.10
1 <in.46
f

2.29
2.23
1.81
1.74
5.75
5.57

c0. 9861
c0. 9801

Bruguiera sp

) 12.26
1 11. 88

0. 8799
0. 8732

Catutan

Burguiera sp

j 13.24
1 13. 03

1.29
1.28

0. 9136
0. 8868

Tabigue

Bacauan

Xylocarpus moluccensis

Bruguiera sp

| 13. 71
1 12. 73
) 13. 07
1 12.77

2.80

0.7412
0. 7333
0.996
0.991

2.12
2.05

Tambu-tambu

Xylocarpus moluccensis

| hi3.()0
1 <U2.50

2.72
2.71

0. 5954
0. 5668

Pagatpat

Sonneratia caseolaris

| 12. 94
1 12. 83

2.65
2.62

0. 6688
0. 5867

Bacauan

Rhizophora candelaria

| 12. 78
I 12.45

2.41
2.26

el. 071
el. 002

Tangal

| 13. 25
1 13.09

1.60

0.890

0.880

16
17

Pototan . . ...

Lenggadi

Brugiiie ra conjuga ta

Bruquiera parviflora . . .

| 13.24
i| 12.63

| 13.37
il 13.32

1.55

0. 9426
0. 9336

1.65

0. 8936
0. 8881

18
19

Pagatpat

Pagatpat ...

Sonneratia caseolaris

! (a)

*vood.

0.8186

0. 8447

a Air- dry.

" Sapi

•' Heartwood heginr

ling to form. '" Hea

vier than

water.

'' The heartwood s

nks. r Uns

masoned.

FIREWOOD.

109

Fig. 1. Marketing firewood in Manila.

Fig. 2. Firewood piled for sale in the Manila market.
PLATE XLIV.

110 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

In Table XXI are given the specific gravities of various man-
grove-swamp woods as determined by Cox. From this table it
will be seen that the woods of the Rhizophoraceae have a high
specific gravity, averaging about 0.9. Usually the mature heart-
wood of all Rhizophoraceae sinks in water. As all well-seasoned
woods have very nearly the same calorific value per unit of
weight, the specific gravity is highly important in determining
the relative fuel value of different woods. The specific gravity
also indicates certain other factors. In general it may said of
woods otherwise equal, that those with low specific gravities
kindle easily and flash quickly, the fire spreading rapidly ; while
those of high specific gravity behave in the opposite way.

From the determinations of specific gravity, Cox has made
comparisons of the fuel value of certain North American woods
and of the mangrove-swamp species of the Philippines. Good
woods include those having specific gravities between 0.60 and
0.75. Among the North American species classed as good are
hard pines, maple, ash, beech, birch, elm, black walnut, and a
number of different oaks. The only mangrove-swamp wood
placed by Cox in this class is tinductinducan (Aegiceras cornicu-
latum). Very good woods are those with specific gravities be-
tween 0.75 and 0.90. North American woods included in this
class are some of the oaks and various species of hickory. In
this class Cox includes tabigue (Xylocarpus moluccensis) , pagat-
pat (Sonneratia caseolaris) , and langarai (Bruguiera parviflora) .
Cox does not mention any of the North American species as
having excellent woods, that is with a specific gravity greater
than 0.9. In this class are included pototan (Bruguiera conju-
gata), bacauan (Rhizophora mucronata), catutan (Bruguiera
sp.), tangal (Ceriops spp.). This comparison emphasizes the
very high value of the mangrove-swamp species for firewood.

In Table XXII are given the analyses and calorific determina-
tions made by Cox on air-dried bark.

FIREWOOD.

Ill

Table XXII. — Analyses and calorific determinations of air-dried bark.

[The numbers and common names are those yriven by Cox in the original table. The
scientific names have been inserted by Mr. E. E. Schneider, wood expert of the Bureau
of Forestry, after a recent examination of specimens of the wood used by Cox.)

No.

Common and scientific names.

Pototan (Bruguiera conjugata)

Bacauan tubig (Rhizophora

mucronata) _

Bacauan (Bruguiera sp.)

Catutan (Bruguiera sp.)

Tabigue (Xylocarpus moluc-

censis)

Bacauan (Bruguiera sp.)

T a m b u-t a m b u (Xylocarpus

moluccensis)

Mois-
ture.

Per cent.
13.90

15.67
16.27

16.21
15.70

15.74

Ash.

Per cent.
6.72

8.19
4.60

7.93
8.17

Main
calo-
ries. b

3,983

3,971

4,054

1 4,034

4,037

3,848
3,891

3,841

Heating

value of

combus-

Available
heating
value.

tible
matter,
wood —
(water

+ash)

in main

calories.

Calories.

3,668

4,863

3,664

4,884

3,708

5,124

3,692

5,099

3,710

4,920

3.488

4,857

3,565

4,903

3,536

4,853

Available
heating
value of

combus-
tible
matter,
wood —
(water
■\ ash).

Calories.
4,568

4,676
4.791
4,771
4,624

4,510
4,594

4,571

b See footnote "a" of Table XXI.

Concerning the relative value of mangrove-swamp woods and
imported coal we may quote the following from Cox :

The available heating value of any well-seasoned wood is about 3,680
calories, and the specific gravity of well-seasoned mangrove wood (Rhizo-
phoraceae) is about 0.9. From the latter value the weight of a solid
cubic meter of meter lengths is about 900 kilograms and of a solid cord
(8 by 4 by 4 English feet) is about 3,260 kilograms. In some parts of
the Philippine Archipelago 2 cubic meters (2 by 1 by 1 meters) are called
a talacsan. Since there are generally 35 per cent of voids, or interstices,
in wood of a meter or more in length, one actually obtains about 585
kilograms and 2,120 kilograms of this wood in a cubic meter and in n
cord, respectively. The available calorific (fuel or heating) value of green
wood is less than of dry wood by an amount not only proportional to the
decreased wood fiber per unit weight, but also by the amount of heat
necessary to evaporate and be carried away by the excess moisture, and
that of green mangrove wood containing 38 per cent water is about 2,420
calories. * * * A commercial concern found that a cord of green man-
grove wood cotained about 18 per cent more water than well-seasoned
wood weighing 2,550 kilograms, which checks with these numbers. The
available heating value of an average imported coal (Tagawa) is approxi-
mately 6,500 calories. From the above numbers it may be' computed that, in
general, a ton of this coal is theoretically equivalent to 3 cubic meters
or 0.83 cord of air-dry Philippine mangrove wood and to 3.24 cubic meters
or 0.89 cord of green mangrove wood containing 38 per cent moisture.
In the latter case 42 per cent extra weight will have to be handled. How-
ever, various consumers report the use in actual practice of one and
one-third or more cords of wood in lieu of 1 ton of coal.

112 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

In view of data given above it is not surprising that the
mangrove-swamp species are highly prized for firewood, that
the swamps near the centers of population have been largely
depleted of the more valuable species, and that bakauan is raised
in plantations.

TANBARKS

The mangrove barks constitute the greatest single source of
tanning material in the Philippines. The species of mangrove
trees which are used commercially for tanning purposes grow
in the Philippines in large numbers. The export of mangrove
tanbarks and of the bark extract, known as cutch, is an im-
portant industry in some tropical countries. In the Philippines
this industry has never been developed, and the barks are used
locally to only a limited extent; although there are extensive
swamps in the Archipelago. The Philippines possesses an ad-
vantage over such countries as Borneo in that owing to a large
population the wood can be used as firewood; so that it would
seem advisable to combine the bark collection with the cutting
of firewood.

Extensive anlyses of Philippine mangrove-swamp barks have
been made by Bacon and Gana * and by Williams. f In Table
XXIII are given the results of analyses made by Bacon and
Gana of barks from Mindanao; and in Table XXIV analyses
of barks from Mindoro made by the same workers. Table XXV
gives the results of analyses of barks submitted by the Bureau
of Forestry to the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington.
These figures are published by Williams. In Table XXVI are
given the results of analyses made by Williams. Table XXVII
shows the results of analyses made on barks from Sarawak,
Borneo.

* Bacon, R. B., and Gana, V. Q., The economic possibilities of the man-
grove swamps of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A,
Vol. 4 (1909), pages 205 to 210.

t Williams, R. R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove swamps
of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911),
pages 45 to 61.

TANBARKS.

113

Table XXIII. — Analyses of mangrove-sivamp barks from Port Banga,

Zamboanga.

Common name.

Do....
Lafigarai .

Do..

Tarigal .

[Data from Bacon and Gana.]

In parts per 100 of water-free bark.

Scientific name.

Moisture !

Insolu-
bility.

Do.

i Per cent., Per cent.
Bruguiera c o n j u g a ta 16. 1 I 63.

(Linn.) Merr. j

do '

Bruguiera parvijiora W.

and A.

Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B.
Robinson.
do

13.5
13.9

13.8
12.4

62.0
84.1

80.4
65.2

Bakauan-laiaki ..
I Bakauan-babaye

Tabigue

Rhizophora candelaria DC.
Rhizophora mucronata Lam
Xylocarpus granatum Koen
do

11.9 |
13.4 j
14.4 !
14.9 :
14.2 :

58.6
68.7
61.7
69.7
67.6

Total Non-

extract, tannin.

Per cent. Pv
36.96 I

38.0
15.9 :

19.6
34.8

41.4
31.3
38.3
30.3
32.4

cent.
9.8

13.5
7.1

8.0
11.6

19.1
13.3
12.4

8.6

7.7

Tannin.

Per cent, j

27.2 I

24.5 I

l
8.8

11.6
23.2

22.3
18.0
25.9
21.7
24.7

Table XXIV. — Analyses of mangrove-swamp barks from Mindoro.

[Data from Bacon and Gana.]

Common name.

Scientific name.

Moisture.

In parts per 100 of water-free bark.

Insolu-
bility.

Total
extract.

Per cent.
39.8

36.6
22.4

24.5
17.9

30.9
27.5
28.5
32.6
35.2
33.4
32.9
35.7

32.9

Non-
tannin.

Per cent.
11.6

12.6
,6

9.6
8.3

9.7
10.5

8.0
12.0
10.8
10.7
10.0
14.1

15.1

Tannin.

Per cent.
28.2

24.0
12.8

14.9
9.6

21.2
17.0
20.5
20.6
24.4
22.7
22.9
21.6

17.8

Busain

Bruguiera conjugata
(Linn.) Merr.
do

Per cent.
13.9

13.9
14.0

14.8
12.9
11.8

12.3
12.7
13.2
13.5
14.4
14.1
13.2

13.4

Per cent.
60.2

63.4

77.4

75.5
82.1

69.1
72.5
71.5
67.4
64.8
66.6
67.1
64.3

67.1

Larigarai

Bruguiera parvijiora W.
and A.
do

. do

Tangal

Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B.
Robinson,
do

Bakauan-laiaki . .
Do

Rhizophora candelaria DC _
do

Bakauan-babaye.
Do

Rhizophora mucronata
Lam.
do

_ _____

161791

114

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Table XXV. — Analyses of Philippine mangrove-swamp barks submitted by
the Bureau of Forestry to the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington.

[Data from Williams.]

Common name.

Scientific name.

Larig&rai

Pototan

Bruguiera parvijlora W.

and A.
Bruguiera sexangula

(Lour.) Poir.
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B.

Rob.
Rhizophora candelaria DC _

Tangal

Bakauan

Total
solids.

24.43

37.36

58.58
53.91

Soluble
solids.

19.82
36.81

49.02
51.03

"Reds."

4.61
0.55

9.56
2.88

Non-
tannin.

7.27
10.15

13.19
11.64

Tannin.

12.55
26.66

35.83
39.39

Table XXVI. — Analyses of Philippine mangrove-swamp barks.

[Data from Williams.]

Species.

Number
I of
! determi-
I nations.

Bruguiera conjugata (Linn.) Merr

Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir

Bruguiera parvijlora W. and A

Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B. Rob

Rhizophora candelaria DC

Rhizophora mucronata Lam

Sonneratia caseolaris Linn

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem.
Xylocarpus granatum Koen

Average

of
determi-
nations.

32.4

9.1

31.3

27.8

27.6

11.8

23.0

23.2

Table XXVII. — Analyses of mangrove-swamp barks from Sarawak, Borneo.^

[Data from Bacon and Gana.]

Common name.

Scientific name.

Busain

Bruguiera conjugata

(Linn.) Merr.

(Lour.) Poir.

Tarigal

Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B.

Robinson.

Bak&uan-lalaki ._

Rhizophora candelaria DC -

Bak&uan-babaye.

Rhizophora mucronata Lam

Mois-
ture.

Per cent.

Insol-
ubility.

Total ex-
tract.

Non-
tannin.

Per cent.

15.5

64.3

35.7

9.0

16.1

64.0

36.0

8.0

13.8

63.8

36.2

6.9

14.7

58.3

41.7

9.6

14.4

70.1

29.9

9.4

Tannin.

Per cent.
26.7

27.2
29.3

32.0
20.5

a Analysis was made of some samples of mangrove barks brought from Sarawak, Borneo,
by Dr. Foxworthy, of the botanical division of this Bureau. These barks are uped by cutch
factories and among the species in Borneo probably yield the highest amount of tannin.

TANBARKS.

115

Table XXVIII.— Yield of bark from mangrove trees of different sizes.

[Data from Fox worthy and Matthews.]

Species.

Bru-

Ceriops
u j ta^al and

Dia-
meter.

Rhi-
zophora
cande-

Rhi-
zophora

mucro-

jyuiera

conju-

Kata and

Bru-

Ceriops
tajral and

Ceriops

roxburnr-

hiana.

laria.

nata.

guiera
sexan-
Rula.

Inches.

Kilos.

110

133
157

121
145

57
66

193

178

236

223

287

266

103

18
19

120
139

In Table XXVIII is shown the yield of bark from trees of
different sizes of Rhizophora candelaria, Rhizophora mucronata,
Bruguiera conjugata and Bruguiera sexangula, and Ceriops
tagal and Ceriops roxburghiana. The figures in this table were
calculated from a table by Foxworthy and Matthews.*

Very various results have been obtained by analyzing the
barks of the same species, and it has been often stated that the
bark from some countries is richer in tannin than that from
others. Williams f says that the percentage of tannin in-
creases with the size of the tree. He believed, however, that
this increase was due rather to the age than to the size. In
drying, barks also lose a certain portion of their tannin, es-
pecially if not properly dried. Owing to these facts and to the
varied results obtained by analyses it is questionable as to

* Foxworthy, F. W. and Matthews, D. M., Mangrove and nipah swamps
of British North Borneo, Department of Forestry Bulletin No. 3 (1917),
page 16.

t Williams, R. R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove swamps
of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911),
pages 45 to 61.

116 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

whether or not bark of the same age has a different tannin con-
tent in different regions. The barks from East Africa are,
however, reported to be richer in tannin than those from the
Indo-Malayan region. The Philippine barks certainly appear
to be as rich as those in Borneo which have been used in cutch
factories. Owing to the relatively low price that the crude
barks command and the expenses of shipping, it would probably
be advisable to export cutch rather than the crude barks.

Cutch is not only used as a tanning material but also as a dye.
A short history of the uses of cutch has been given by Fox-
worthy.* The name cutch was originally applied to a product
of the heartwood of Acacia catechu Willd., which has been
known from India and Burma for many years.

Table XXIX. — Amount of tanbarks and dye barks on which forest charges
were paid in the Philippine Islands from 1914 to 1918, inclusive.

1914.
1915..
1916..
1917..
1918..

Tanbarks.

Dye barks.

Kilos.

2, 793, 295

58, 714

1,913,558

94, 492

1, 543, 686

93, 057

3, 165, 687

84, 364

1, 973, 786

148, 764

The supply was however not entirely uniform or reliable.
When the product from the mangrove trees came into the
market it superseded the Indian cutch to such an extent that
this term is now used mainly with reference to the mangrove
extracts. With the advent of the common use of aniline dye
it was found that the Bismark browns furnished a cheaper and
a. more easily handled dye than cutch and, consequently, the use
of the latter as a dye gradually ceased.

The bark of Ceriops spp. is used locally for coloring rice and
tuba and for dyeing. The bark of Xylocarpus granatum is also
used locally to a considerable extent for dyeing purposes. The
dyeing property of the barks of Ceriops tagal and Xylocarpus
granatum is not great, and they are of more use as mordants.
They are, however, used in large quantity for dyeing fishnets,
ropes, sails, and clothing used in salt water. Table XXIX shows
the amount of tanbarks and dye barks upon which forest charges
were paid from 1914 to 1918. The barks consisted very largely
of mangrove-swamp species, the dye barks chiefly of Ceriops
spp. and Xylocarpus granatum.

* Foxworthy, F. W., Cutch, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 3
(1908), page 534.

TANBARKS. 117

Many mangrove swamps in the Philippines have been so thor-
oughly depleted of the larger-sized and more valuable trees that
even though they cover extensive areas they would not be cap-
able of supporting a cutch factory. However, there are areas
in Mindanao, Mindoro, and Palawan which, although they may
not be as large as some in Borneo, still offer promising sites
for cutch factories. In Sibuguey Bay, Mindanao, there is a
well developed swamp covering an area of 25,000 hectares. Con-
cerning this area Williams t says :

I have found that this area will yield about 20 metric tons per hectare of
fresh bark of mature trees of selected species averaging about 28 to 30 per
cent of tannin on the dry weight. Only four species are included in this
estimate, all others being negligible from a commercial standpoint. The
natural resources are sufficient for a profitable industry, the swamps being
fully as valuable, hectare for hectare, as many now being worked in the
East Indies.

A survey of the data shows that only four species can be depended upon
to furnish a supply of bark. They are Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora
conjugata [candelaria] , Bruguiera gymnorrhiza [conjugata], and Bru-
guiera eriopetala [sexangula], the two former commonly known as "ba-
cauan" (bakauan-lalaki and bakauan-babaye respectively), the two latter
as "pototan" or "pitutan." Tangal, which is the "tengah" bark of Borneo
upon which the manufacturers there depend to a considerable extent, is
scarce on Sibuguey Bay. Both Xylocarpus granatum and Xylocarpus obo-
vatus [granatum] yield too small quantities of bark per tree to be remu-
nerative. Bruguiera parviflora has a very low tannin content, as has
Sonneratia pagatpat [caseolaris] .

However, a use may be found for the last mentioned for blending with
the more valuable barks, since it produces a leather of good, brown color,
very different from any tanned by barks of the Rhizophorace'ae.

In calculating the yield of bark in the area examined, only bacauan and
pototan tree 20 centimeters or more in diameter have been counted. For
this purpose seven rectangular areas of about one-fourth hectare each were
selected as representative after a fairly through exploration of the sur-
rounding swamp. These areas are distributed at approximately regular
intervals between the mouths of the Vitali and Buluan Rivers. The yield
of bark per tree was determined by felling three representative trees each
of bacauan and pototan and stripping and weighing the bark. Bacauan
averaged 140 kilograms per tree, pototan* 190 kilograms. On this basis the
area will yield 20.6 metric tons of bacauan bark per hectare, and 5.8 tons
-* pototan. We may safely state the yield at 20 tons per hectare of bark.

y In Mindoro there is a tract of 10,000 hectares and in Palawan
■ fairly compact area of good swamp. The swamps in the
■ther islands of the Archipelago are so scattered as to make the
1 uccess of a cutch factory doubtful.

t Williams, R. R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove swamps
of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911),
page 47.

118

MANGROVE SWAMPS.

Concerning the manufacture of cutch from Philippine mate-
rials Bacon and Gana * write as follows :

There are three large cutch factories in Borneo using tan barks from
the same species of mangrove as those found in the Philippines. These
factories regard the process of manufacturing cutch as a trade secret, but
we can not believe that these so-called trade secrets are of a very formidable
nature, as we have succeeded in preparing very good grades of cutch with-
out any complicated processes in this laboratory. Our cutch is a dry,
brown solid with a brilliant, almost metallic, fracture. It is easily and
completely soluble in water and the analysis shows the following con-
stituents :

Constituent.

Moisture ._-
Insoluble _.

Soluble

Non-tannin
Tannin

In parts per 100

of water-f ree

material.

II.

Per cent.

2.6

5.7

1.9

1.3

98.1

98.7

28.8

26.1

69.3

72.6

The following was the method used to prepare the cutch:
The finely ground bark was leached with cold water, and this solution
evaporated to dryness in vacuo. Hot water extracts too much of the
coloring matter, and no more tannin than cold water. The evaporation,
at least the latter stages, must always be made in vacuo to avoid burning
the cutch. It is sufficiently obvious that the extraction on a large scale
would be carried out in such a manner that strong solutions would be
employed to leach fresh bark while weak ones would be used to extract
the last percentages of the tannin from the partly exhausted bark. All
the parts of the factory, except the vacuum dryers, could be built on the
ground, and it is evident that the fuel for the boilers and for the dryers
would cost very little, so that it would appear that if the cutch manufacture
were taken up in connection with the lumbering or firewood industry that
it would be exceedingly profitable.

The chief objection to the use of cutch as a tanning material
seems to be that it produces a reddish brown leather which is
somewhat harsh and thick-grained, due to the high astringency
of the tannin; but when mixed with other materials it gives
very satisfactory tannage.f

* Bacon, R. F. and Gana, V. Q., The economic possibilities of the man]
grove swamps of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A
Vol. 4 (1909), pages 206 to 207.

f Williams, R. R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove swamps
of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911),
page 56.

NIPA PALM. 119

ECONOMIC USES OF THE NIPA PALM

THATCHING

Economically the nipa palm takes a very high rank among
the plants of the Philippines. Throughout the Islands, except
in inaccessible regions, the leaves are used extensively for thatch-
ing. Most of the people dwell in light-construction houses, and
nipa is by far the commonest material used for thatching such
dwellings. Nipa shingles are also sometimes used for the walls
of houses. As nipa roofs take fire readily and a fire in a nipa
district spreads with great rapidity and can be controlled with
great difficulty, if at all, the use of this material for thatching
houses has now been prohibited in a considerable portion of the
city of Manila and other large towns.

The nipa shingles are made by removing the leaflets from
the petiole, and doubling back one-third of the length of the
leaflet over a slender piece of bamboo, the leaflets being so placed
that they overlap. They are then sewed in place to form an
oblong shingle, usually about 70 centimeters in length. In Pam-
panga a woman will, as a rule, prepare from four hundred to
five hundred of these shingles in a day, and some will make
as many as eight hundred a day. The shingles are usually tied
in bundles of ten to facilitate handling them.

OTHER USES OF LEAVES

The leaflets are not only used for building purposes, but also
for making raincoats and sun hats (salacots), coarse baskets,
mats, and bags. The midribs of the leaves are used for tying
bundles of rice, for sewing nipa shingles, and for making coarse
brooms. The petioles are employed as fuel, while splints pre-
pared from the cortex are sometimes used for making baskets.

SEEDS

The immature seeds are used for food, the taste and the con-
sistency being similar to those of the flesh of immature coconuts.
They are sometimes made into a kind of sweetmeat. The mature
seeds are too hard to be eaten.

ALCOHOL

Nipa is very important as a source of alcohol and vinegar, and
is a promising source of sugar. This subject has been exten-
sively investigated by Gibbs,* from whose article most of the
information on this subject is taken. The production of proof

* Gibbs H D The alcohol industry of the Philippine Islands. Part
I, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911), pages 99 to 145.

120 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

alcohol in the Philippines exceeds thirteen million liters an-
nually, and about 55 per cent of this is the product of the nipa
palm. The alcohol is obtained by distilling the fermented juice
which flows from a cut inflorescence stalk after the fruiting
head has been removed. As the inflorescence of the nipa is near
the ground, the flower stalk is conveniently situated for the
gathering of the sap, called tuba. Some time after the fruit is
formed, the stalk is cut across near its top, usually just below
the fruit ; and each day a thin slice is removed to keep the wound
fresh and to facilitate exudation. If the plant bears two flower
stalks the usual practice is to take sap from only one, the other
being removed.

Sap is collected in bamboo joints which are hung on the stem.
These containers are about 45 centimeters high and 8 centi-
meters in diameter and have a capacity of about 2 liters (Plate
XLV). The stalk usually flows for about three months, but it
is not uncommon for it to be cut away, or at least cut so
close to the ground that the daily paring is impracticable, long
before the flow has ceased. In some districts the stem is cut
before the fruit is formed and under such conditions the daily
yield of sap is said to be increased, but the period of flow reduced
from three to one and one-half months, the total yield being
practically the same in both cases. The season of gathering
the juice is usually of about six months' duration.

Gibbs came to the conclusion that with the present method
of caring for a nipa area an average plant would produce 43
liters of sap during the season, while a conservative estimate f
places the number of palms in a cultivated swamp at between
2,000 to 2,500 per hectare, of which 750 may be depended upon
to produce fruiting stalks and consequently be available for sap
collection.

Gibbs gave the following composition for sap of the best
quality :

Density 15°/15° 1.0720

Total solids 18.00

Ash 0.48

Acidity ...Trace.

Sucrose 17.00

Reducing sugars Trace.

t Gibbs, H. D., The alcohol industry of the Philippine Islands. Part I,
Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911), pages 99 to 145.

f Pratt, D. S., Thurlow, L. W., Williams, R. R., and Gibbs, H. D., The
nipa palm as a commercial source of sugar, Philippine Journal of Science,,
Sec. A, Vol. 8 (1913), pages 377 to 398.

#*.•

NIPA PALM.

Fig. 1. Nipa swamps as far as the eye can reach.

Fifl. 2. Uncultivated nipa swamp.
PLATE XLV.

122 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

He found that the inversion of the sucrose began after the
sap is dropped from the stem and concluded that it was due
to the formation of an enzyme.

Tuba is carried by small boats (bancas) from the place of
collection to the distilleries. According to Gibbs the inversion
is complete and the alcoholic fermentation well under way and
sometimes completed before the sap arrives at the distillery.
Sometimes the acetic acid fermentation has progressed to a con-
siderable extent. The yield of alcohol obtained from the sap
varied from 4.1 to 7.5 per cent, the average for thirty-three
distilleries was 5.6 per cent. Due to faulty methods the yield
of alcohol is not what it should be. The average price paid for
the sap at the distillery is, according to Gibbs, 0.006 peso per
liter. Gibbs says that the alcohol produced from the nipa sap
should be about 6 per cent of the tuba, and under favorable
conditions he believes above 7 per cent. With a yield of 6.5
per cent alcohol, the purchase price of the raw material would
be equivalent to a cost of 0.0415 peso to 0.0830 peso per liter
for 90 per cent alcohol. His estimates would indicate that
nipa sap is the cheapest known source of alcohol. For manu-
facturing alcohol, nipa possesses several advantages over grains
in that it does not need purification, pulping, etc. The storage
space and fermentation vats may also be smaller, since fer-
mentation is complete in from six to ten hours and the material
ready to be distilled. Gibbs estimates that the owner of a nipa
area by selling sap clears about 129 pesos per hectare per annum.

In some distilleries, especially in those near sugar cane lands,
molasses is added to the fermenting sap. The molasses, which
usually contains about 60 per cent of fermentable carbohydrates,
is sometimes used in amounts equal to that of the tuba. Accord-
ing to Gibbs the advantages are threefold: The invertase and
alcoholic ferment in the tuba act with great rapidity upon the
molasses, providing an easy method for the utilization of the
latter ; the production of alcohol is greatly increased ; and when
there is a shortage in the supply of sap, the uninterrupted run-
ning of the stills is assured. The use of molasses during a
portion of the season enables some distilleries to operate during
the entire year.

TUBA

The fermented juice (tuba) of the nipa palm is used exten-
sively by the Filipinos as a beverage. It resembles apple cider
in appearance and flavor.

NIPA PALM.

123

124 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

VINEGAR

Considerable quantities of vinegar are manufactured from nipa
tuba by allowing acetic fermentation to follow alcoholic fermen-
tation. The methods at present used are very crude and the
product inferior, containing only from 2 to 3 per cent acetic acid.

CULTIVATION OF NIPA

A considerable amount of capital is invested in the nipa-
alcohol industry, large distilleries exist in various nipa swamps,
and the swamps themselves have been improved. Artificial
channels have been dredged, to make the nipa areas more acces-
sible for the purpose of gathering and transporting the sap,
and in some places the nipa areas have been extended by plant-
ing, yet at the present time only a small part of the available
"nipales" is commercially utilized.

The best publication on the cultivation of nipa is a small
pamphlet published in Manila in 1906, by Enrique Zobel, entitled
"Estudio de la planta nipa." The following information is taken
largely from this publication :

Nipa is planted in the months from May to July, the seeds
being placed in holes 1.7 to 2 meters apart. The period of de-
velopment does not exceed four years in which time flowers are
produced and the plant can be utilized for the production of
alcohol. During the first year the plant grows from 1.5 to 2
meters. The seeds carried by water and deposited on land under
shade seem to develop better and to produce healthier plants
than those artificially planted in the open. Nipa is not only
reproduced by seeds but also by the branching of the rhizome.
In order to keep a nipal (nipa swamp) in good condition, the
plants must be thinned until they are from 1.5 to 1.7 meters
apart. In doing this it is necessary to cut up the roots of the
plants removed to prevent their regeneration. At the end of
two years a nipa plant has seven to eight leaves, and this
number is maintained throughout its life. If a nipa swamp
is cultivated for the sap, the fresh leaves should not be cut,
while it is very advantageous to remove the drooping or dry-
ing leaves which can be used for thatching houses, etc. When
roofing material and not tuba is desired, three or four fresh
leaves may be cut, but this interferes with the development of
the plant and greatly decreases the flow of tuba.

If nipa is cultivated for alcohol, care should be taken not to
injure the plant at the time of flowering, as an injury at this

NIPA PALM.

125

126 MANGROVE SWAMPS.

time is likely to cause the flower to die. The first thing done
before the gathering of sap is the cleaning of the nipal. The
ground is cleared of weeds and vines and any other obstacles
that interfere with the workman passing between the plants
to collect tuba. At this time the mature leaves are cut off,
tied into bundles, and transported to the houses where the women
make the nipa shingles.

SUGAR

It is possible that the nipa palm may prove to be a profitable
commercial source of sugar. This subject has been quite ex-
tensively investigated by chemists of the Bureau of Science,*
with the following general results: With a normal average of
sap flow of from 30 to 50 liters per plant over a period of three
months, with a sap-collecting period of six months, and with
an average of 750 bearing trees per hectare, it was found that 1
hectare would produce an average quantity of 30,000 liters of
sap. The cost of collection and delivery at a sugar mill was
found to be about 3 pesos per 1,000 liters; and the sugar yield
about 115 kilograms of commercial white sugar, polarizing at
99 or above, per 1,000 liters of sap. The palm juice has the
advantage over cane juice of being free from acids, waxes, etc.,
colorless, with no debris, and, when fresh, with no invert sugar.
The chief difficulty in utilizing nipa as a source of sugar lies
in the fact that normally fermentation commences with the flow
of sap from the cut peduncle, that enzymes are present in the
sap which will in time cause the complete inversion of the
sucrose, and that it is difficult to prevent this inversion. With
the use of a modified type of container freshly lined with lime
cream and sulphite, for gathering the sap, fermentation and
inversion can be prevented or inhibited for at least twelve hours,
thus allowing sufficient time to collect and deliver the sap without
undue loss of sucrose.

FOREST CHARGES

The mangrove-swamp areas are property of the Philippine
Government and are not sold but developed un$er a license sys-
tem. Usually small operators work under an ordinary yearly
license for definite small areas. Exclusive licenses (or con-

* Gibbs, H. D., The alcohol industry of the Philippine Islands. Part I,
Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911), pages 99 to 145.

* Pratt, D. S., Thurlow, L. W., Williams, R. R., and Gibbs, H. D., The
nipa palm as a commercial source of sugar, Philippine Journal of Science,
Sec. A, Vol. 8 (1913), pages 377 to 398.

FOREST CHARGES. 127

cessions, as they are popularly called) are generally in the form
of a twenty-year exclusive license to cut and extract timber,
firewood, dye and tanbarks and other minor forest products
from a specific tract. The land is in no way affected as merely
the timber and minor forest products are included. Areas of
10 hectares are leased for factory or mill sites free of charge, as
are also all rights of way for the operation of a concession. The
charges are only nominal and are collectable after the products
have been gathered.

A charge of 20 centavos per cubic meter is paid on wood cut
for firewood; if cut for lumber, the charge is according to the
group, Philippine wood being divided into four groups, Lum-
nitzera spp. belongs to the second group, which is assessed at
1.50 pesos per cubic meter. Sonneratia pagatpat and Xylo-
carpus moluccensis belong to the third group, on which
there is a charge of 1 peso per cubic meter. All of the other
timbers from the mangrove swamps belong to the fourth group
on which a charge of 50 centavos per cubic meter is paid. Tan-
barks are assessed at 30 centavos per hundred kilograms, and
dye barks at 50 centavos per hundred kilograms.

INDEX

Page.

Acacia catechu 116

Acanthaceae 22, 26, 76

Acanthus 24, 26, 76

Acanthus ebracteatus 18, 22, 76, 78

Acanthus ilicifolius .... 18, 22, 23, 76, 78, 79, 95

Acrostichum 24, 27

Acrostichum aureum 18, 22, 23, 26, 27

Aegiceras 25, 66

Aegiceras corniculatum 16, 22, 23, 66, 68,

69, 70, 71, 110
Aegiceras floridum ...» 22, 66, 70, 72

Agnaia

Akat

Alay

Alcohol from nipa palm

119

Analyses of mangrove firewood

Analyses of mangrove tanbarks...

106

113

.. 22, 23, 30

Anilai

Anipa

Api-api 22, 23, 74, 76, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94

Apocynaceae 22, 26, 70

Area of mangrove swamps 11

Arinaya 78

Asplenium nidus 18

Avicennia 24, 26, 74

Avicennia alba 22, 74, 76

Avicennia officinalis 16, 17, 22, 74, 75, 76, 77, 90

Avicennia spp 16, 23

Bacao 106, 108

Bacauan 106, 108, 110

Bacauan-tubig 106,108,111

Bakad 62

Bakao 46

Bakau 23, 46, 62

Bakauan 46, 48, 56, 62, 80, 82, 83, 84, £6.

87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
98, 100, 101, 107, 104

Bakauan-babae 22. 23, 62, 96, 100, 113,

114, 117

Bakauan-lalaki .... 22, 23, 48, 52, 62, 96, 99, 100,

101, 113, 114, 117

Bakhao

Bakhau

Bako

Bakting

Baku

Balisiai

Balinsarayan

Baluno 34

Bangkau 62

Bankita 23

Banig-banig ? 8

161791 9

Page.

Baraybay 22, 70

Barringtonia racemosa 20

Barit 36

Basiad Bay mangrove swamps 83

Batag-batag 66

Eatano 34

Bat-ano 70

Bating 62

Haut 36

Bayag-kabayo 36

Bayag-usa 70

Beech 110

B'eus 23

Biosan 52

Birch 110

Biuas 48

Biuis 48

Bius 48

Black Walnut 110

Bombacaceae 22, 25, 34

Brownlowia 24, 25, 34

Brownlowia lanceolata 22, 34

bruguiera 24, 25, 42, 89

Bruguiera caryophylloides 22, 52

Bruguiera conjugata .... 16, 23, 42, 45, 46, 48, 52,
64, 84, 87, 106, 108, 110,
111, 113, 114, 115
Bnvruiera cylindrica.... 16, 22, 42 46, 48, 50, 51

Bruguiera eriopetala 22, 48, 117

Pruguiera gymnorrhiza 22,48,117

Bruguiera parviflora.... 13, 16, 22, 23, 42, 46, 48,

52, 53, 55, 84, 87, 88, 106,

108, 110, 113, 114, 117

Bruguiera sexangula.... 16, 22, 23, 42, 46, 47, 48,

49, 64, 90, 114, 115

Brugiera sp 106, 108, 110, 111

B'rus 2S

Bubutigan 52

Bulali 66

Bulokbulok 62

Bulubadiang 56

Buis 48

Bunayon 40

Bungalon 34, 74

Bungalong 40

Busain 22, 23, 42, 46, 48, 83, 86,

87, 88,90, 113, 114

Busai-ing 46

Busaing 48

Busi-ing 46

Buta 34

Buta-buta 22, 23, 34, 70

Buto-buto 70

129

130

Index

Page.

Caesalpinia crista 18

Caesalpinia nuga 18, 95

Camptostemon 25, 34

Camptostemon philippinense 22, 23,34, 35

Catutan 106, 108, 110, 111

Cerbera 24, 26

Cerbera man-has 22, 70, 73

Cerbera odollam 22, 70

Ceriops 24, 25, 42, 89

Ceriops candollearia 56

Ceriops roxburghiana 16, 22, 54, 56, 57,

58, 87, 115

Ceriops spp 23,110,116

Ceriops tagal 16, 22, 54, 106, 108,

113, 114, 115, 116

Chanos chanos 104

Chengam 23

Coconut 119

Combretacese 22, 25, 62

Composite 22, 26, 78

Cultivation of nipa 124

Cultivation of Rhizophora 94

Cumingia philippinense 22

Cutch 116, 118

Cutting planted Rhizophora 98

Cymbidium 18

Cyperus malaccensis 20

Dagudri 76

Dalbergia candenatensis 18

Daluari 76

Daluru-babae 62

Dandulit 34

Dendrobium 18

Derris trifoliata 18

Derris uliginosa 18

Description of mangrove swamps 11, 20

Descriptions of mangrove-swamp spe-
cies 26

Diliuariu 22, 23, 76, 95

Dischidia 18

Dischidia saccata 18

Distribution of species in mangrove

swamps 16

Dita 70

Djoeroedjoe 23

Dulokdulok 62

Duluariu 76

Duluk-duluk 66

Dumanai G6

Dumon 36

Dungas 7f)

Dungon 23, 36

Dungon-late 22,23,36,91,92,93,94

Dungon-lalao 36

Dungun 23

Drynaria quercifolia 18

Economic uses of the nipa palm 119

Elm 110

Epiphytes in mangrove swamps 18

Euphorbiaceae 22, 25, 34

Excoecaria 24, 25, 34

Excoecaria agallocha 22, 23, 34, 35, 70

Fimbristylis ferruginea 20

Finlaysonia obovata 18

Firewood

Forest charges

Fuel value of mangrove firewood
Calura

Page.

105

126

110

Gapas-gapas 22, 23, 34

Glochidion littorale 20

Cregorio 76

Griting 23

Gunhiin 66

Hanbulali 78

Hangalai 52

' Hangarai 52

Hapong 23

1 Heritiera 24, 25, 36

| Heritiera littoralis 16, 22, 23, 36, 37

j Hibiscus tiliaceus 20

| Hikau-hikauan 38

I HiiTgalai 52

Hingali 48

| Hoya 18

Hulit-tengah 23

Hydnophytum 18, 21

llukabban 38, 40

Jeruju 23

Kachang-kachang 23

Kachuchis 76

Kalabayuan 48

Kalapani' 22, 62, 74, 78

Kalapini mangitit 74

Karifurug 62

Key to genera of mangrove-swamp

plants 24

Kundug-kindug 66

Kolasiman 62

Kubi 70

Kulasi 22, 34, 62, 64, 66, 74, 78

Kulimbaning 30

| Lagasak 48

Lagoiloi 76

Lagolo 22, 23, 26

Lagundi'-late 78

Lagut-ut 32

Landing 78

Langarai .... 23, 42, 48, 52, 80, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88,
90, 91, 92, 93, 110, 113, 114

Langari 48, 52

Lapole 26

Lasa 26

Lenggadai 23

Lenggadi 23, 106, 108

Libato 62

Libato-puti 34

Lingog 74

Lipata 34, 70

Lipatang-buhay 34

List of species in mangrove swamps 22

Lubanayong 30

Lukabban 38, 40

Lukabbaan 40

Lumnitzera 25, 63

Lumnitzera littorea 16, 22, 23, 62, 64, 65

Lumnitzera racemosa 22, 62, 64

Lumnitzera spp 127

Magalolo 62

Index

131

Page.

Magayao 36

Magtangud 48

MagtorTgog 48

Magtongod 54

Malariingon 36

Maligang 66

Manggating 23

Manzanilla 78

Macro 62

Maple HO

Maragomon 22, 34

Marketing of Rhizophora firewood 101

Matangal 56

Meliaceae 22, 25, 30

Miapi 74

Mindoro mangrove swamps 117

Monotbonot 66

Myrmecodia 18, 19

Myrsinaceae 22, 25, 66

Myrtaceae 22, 66

Nibong 23

Nigi 30

Nigi'-puti' 34

Nilad 22, 78

Nilar 78

Nipa 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 94,

95, 119, 121, 123, 124
Nipa frulicans, see nipa.

Nipah 23

Nipa seeds 119

Niri 23

Nirih 23

Njiboeng 23

Nyireh 23

Nyireh batu 23

Oaks HO

Oncosperma 24, 25, 26

Oncosperma filamentosa 22, 23, 30

Osbornia 24, 25, 66

Osbornia octodonta 22, 66, 67

Pagatpat 13, 15, 22, 23, 38, 40, 66, 80,

82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91,
92, 93, 94, 96, 106, 108, 110

Pakos larat 23

Paku laut 23

Pakupakuan 26

Palalan 40

Palapat 38

Palata 38

Palongapoi 36

Pa'ongapuy 36.

Palmae 22, 25, 26

Palugapig 36

Panabulon 70

Pandakaki 70

Panting-panting 62

Papasil 62

Paronapin 36

Paronapoi 36

Patpat 40

Pauid 26

Paunapin 36

Payar 38

Pedada 22, 23, 38

rage.

Perapat 23

Perepat 23

Piadak 32

Piagao 23

Piagau 22, 30, 32, 80

I'iHi 23, 26

Piapi 76

Piapi 74

Piay 23

Piksik 74

Pilapil 66

Pines no

Pipisig 74

Pipisik 66, 74

Pirara 40

Pitutan 117

Planting of Rhizophora 95

Pluehea 24,26, 78

Pluchea indica 22, 78

Polypodiaceae 22, 25, 26

Polypodium sinuatum 18, 21

Port Banga mangrove swamps 80

Pototan 22, 23, 42, 46, 48, 52, 80, 82, 83, 85,

90, 91, 92, 93, 106, 108, 110, 111, 114, 117

Pototan-babae 48

Pototan-lalaki 22, 42, 48

Pulit 30

Pundung 76

Putut 23

Pututan 23, 48

Puyugau 32

Rhizophora 24, 42, 54, 56, 60, 95

Rhizophora candelaria 16, 22, 59, 60, 62,

106, 108, 113, 114, 115

Rhizophoracese 22, 25, 42, 110, 111, 117

Rhizophora conjugata 22, 117

Rhizophora mocronata .... 16, 22, 60, 61, 62, 63,
106, 108, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117

Rhizophora spp 23, 84, 87, 88, 90, 94, 95

Rongon 56

Rubiaceae 22, 26, 78

Rungon 56

Saga 26

Sagasa 23, 48, 62, 66, 78

Sagasak 48

Saging-saging 22, 23, 66

Sala'sa 62

Samar mangrove swamps 88

Sangkuyong 32

Santing 62

Santing-santing 76

Sapinit 95

Sasa 26

Scyphiphora 24, 26, 78

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea 22, 23, 78, 81

Sibuguey mangrove swamps 117

Sonneratia 24, 25, 38

Sonneratia acida 22

Sonneratia alba 22, 23, 38, 39, 42

Sonneratia caseolaris.... 13, 15, 16, 22, 23, 38, 40,
41, 43, 106, 108, 110, 114

Sonneratiaceae 22, 25, 38

Sonneratia pagatpat 22, 117, 127

Sonneratia spp 96

132

Index

Page.
Specific gravities of mangrove firewood.. 108

Stands in mangrove swamps 80

Sterculiaceae 22, 25, 36

Sugar from nipa palm 126

Sulasi' 64

Sulasig 66

Tabau 22, 23, 62, 64, 66, 78, 90, 91

Tabigi 22, 23, 30, 32, 83, 84, 86,

87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94

Tabigue 106, 108, 110, 111, 113

Taboeta 23

Tagasa 56

Taggai 23

Tambo-tambo 30

Tambu-tambu 106, 108, 111

Tangal 22, 23, 54, 56, 80, 82, 83, 84,

86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 106,
107, 108, 110, 113, 114, 117

Tangalan 48

Tangal-lalaki 56 j

Tagasa 48

Tanbarks 112 j

Tanghal 54 ;

Taruntum 23 |

Tata 26

Tawalis 22, 66

Tayokon 66 ;

Tengah 23, 117 j

Tengar 23 j

Terentum 23 j

Thatching from nipa palm 119 i

Thespesia populnea 20

Tibigi 32 j

Tigbao 22 :

Tigbau 78

Page.

Tiliaceae 22, 25, 34

Timbambakis 66

Tindoi 76

Tindok 66

Tindok-tindok 66

Tinduktindukan 22, 66, 70, 110

Tinlui 76

Tiwayos 66

Tongog 56

Transportation of Rhizophora firewood.. 102

Tristellateia australasiae 18

Troentoem 23

Tuanio 66

Tuawis 66

Tuba from nipa palm 122

Tugisak 78

Tumu 23

Tunduk-tundukan 66

TurTgod 54

Tungud 56

Tungug 56

Tungung 56

TTakatan 62

Undergrowth of mangrove swamps 18

Value of mangrove swamps 20

Verbenaceae 22, 26, 74

Vinegar from nipa palm 124

Xvlocarpi s 24, 25, 30

Xylocarpus granatum 16, 22, 30, 31, 32,

113, 114, 116

Xylocarpus moluccensis .... 16, 22, 23, 30, 32, 33,

106, 108, 110, 111, 114, 127

Xylocarpus obovatus 117

Yacal 12

Yield of mangrove bark 115

DATE DUE

TO RENEW PHONE 764-1494

"WH i»5 1972"

APR 2 2,974

Form 8543

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FORESTRY

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.1918.

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BUREAU OF FORESTRY

MANILA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

[ulletin No. 1 (1903).— Report on investigations made in Java in the year
1902. By Elmer D. Merrill. Out of print

bulletin No, 2 (1$06),— The charcoal industry of the Philippine Islands.
By Wm. M, Maule. Out of print

[ulletin No, 3 (1906). — A compilation of notes' on india rubber and gutta-
percha. Out of print

bulletin No. 4 (1900) .—I. Mechanical tests, properties, and uses of thirty
Philippine woods. II. Philippine sawmills, lumber market, and prices.
By Holland Gardner. Out of print

bulletin No* 5 (1906). —A preliminary working plan for the public forest
tract of the Insular Lumber Company, ttegros Occidental, P. I. By H.
D. Everett and H. N. Whitford. Out of print

bulletin No. 6 (1906).— A preliminary working plan for the public forest
tract of the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company, Bongabon, Mindoro,
P. I. By M. L. Merritt, and H. N. Whitford. Out of print

[iulletin No. 7 (190?).— A preliminary check list of the principal commercial-
timbers of the Philippine Islands. By H. N. Whitford. Out of print

bulletin No. 8 (1908) .—The forests of Mindoro. By Melvin L. Merritt.
Out of print.

bulletin No. 9 (1909). —A Philippine substitute for lignum-vitae. By W. I.
Hutchinson. 60 centavos.* . .

|*ulletin No. 10 (1911).— The forests of the Philippines. I. Forest types and
products. II. The principal forest trees. By H. N. Whitford. 2.50 pesos.

bulletin No. 11 (1912).— The uses of Philippine woods. Out of print.

|5tiHetin No. 12 (1912).— Volume tables for round timber. Compiled by
William Klemme. Out of print

|hilletin No. 13 (1915).— IpiMpil. A firewood and reforestation crop. By
D. M. Matthews. 50 centavos.

|*ulletin No. 1ft (1916).— Commercial woods of the Philippines; their pre-
paration and uses. By E. E. Schneider. 2 pesos.

|iulletin No. 15 <1918).— Philippine bamboos. By William H. Brown and
Arthur F. Fischer. 1.50 pesos.

bulletin No. 16 (1918).— Philippine forest .products as sources of paper

I pulp. By William H. Brown and Arthur F. Fischer. 50 centavos.

]iiilletin No. 17 (1918).— Philippine mangrove swamps. By William II.
Brown and Arthur F. Fischer. 2 pesos.

♦ Pifty cents II. S. currency equal 1 peso or 100 centavos.

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